To further complicate matters, gender and race differences have also been reported. Sempos et al. (2003) analyzed a sample of African Americans who were followed for 19 years as part of the National Health and Nutritional Examination Survey Epidemiologic Follow-Up Study and found no protective effect for low-level drinking on all-cause mortality. Likewise, Kerr and colleagues (2011) found no protective effect of low-level drinking on all-cause mortality for African Americans when analyzing data from the National Alcohol Surveys, but a protective effect was found for Whites in the same sample. With respect to gender, Klatsky and Udaltsova (2007) reported that the protective effect of low-level drinking on all-cause mortality was stronger in women compared to men, whereas a recent meta-analysis found no protective effect at all of low-level drinking for women (Zheng, Lian, Shi et al. 2015).
