Many studies have focused on defining the behavioral phenotype of FASD to assist diagnosis and intervention. Individuals with FASD frequently display deficits in executive functioning, memory, attention, visual-spatial abilities, planning, cognitive flexibility, processing speed, inhibition and inhibition/switching, deductive reasoning and verbal abstract thinking, problem solving, verbal and spatial concept formation, phonemic switching and phonologic working memory, and motor skills.16,17 Executive function deficits are present in individuals with FASD whether or not they have FAS.18,19 Older children with FASD are more impaired than younger children on verbal processing tasks.17 These deficits may contribute to lower IQ scores, poor academic achievement, and learning problems.17 Long-term studies show that adolescents and young adults with FASD have high rates of secondary disabilities including mental health problems (90%), inappropriate sexual behavior (49%), disrupted school education (60%), and trouble with the law (60%). More than one third experience drug and alcohol problems.20 These secondary disabilities may arise from the neurobehavioral deficits caused by prenatal alcohol exposure, with exacerbation or amelioration by environmental factors.9
