The Tower of London Test (Shallice, 1982) and Visual Span Test (Milner, 1971) were used to assess executive function (i.e. planning and problem solving and visuospatial short-term memory, respectively; Supplemental Methods). Tower of London variables included: total excess moves made (errors), average pickup time (initial planning time), and average total time (total planning time). Visual Span Test variables included: highest sequences attained and total correct going forward and backward. For analyses predicting alcohol transitions, EF data came from the neuropsychological assessment conducted most recently prior to the alcohol transition (Supplement). No other neuropsychologically based cognitive assessments were collected in COGA-P.
