participants and American-Indian males report increased rates of exposure to parental violence. These findings must be interpreted in the context of the father-figure towards mother-figure direction embedded within these variables since previous studies have shown that the gender of the perpetrator, and attitudes regarding gender and violence, both impact the influence of parental violence on behavior (Temple et al. 2013; Howell et al. 2014). Increased rates of exposure to partner violence may contribute to more normative views of domestic and partner violence (Cunradi et al. 1999; Caetano et al. 2000, 2001; Cunradi & Caetano, 2002), which together with limited access to mental health services (Krishnan et al. 2001; Lipsky et al. 2006) may decrease the likelihood of treatment services following traumatic exposure and increase risk for AUD. While exposure to parental violence clearly has adverse mental and physical health consequences for all groups, exposure to father-figure towards mother-figure violence may be a particularly potent negative life event that increases the risk for adult AUD among women, and ethnic/minority groups with extremely high rates of exposure (e.g. American Indians). More research is needed to understand the relation between parental violence and SUD in racial/ethnic minority groups, and to identify factors explaining
