Du Bois (1899) reported that black men had poorer health than black women and that the gender differences in health were larger for blacks than for whites. These patterns were also attributed to “the social condition of the sexes in the city.” He indicated that although domestic work was the only option for black women, work was more available for black women than for their male counterparts. In addition, the conditions of work for black women were more conducive to health than those of black men. The domestic servant had access to a good house, good food and proper clothing. In contrast, back males lived in poorer housing, on poorly prepared or irregular food and had jobs that provided greater exposure to adverse weather conditions. Du Bois (1899) also speculated that migration and urbanization were influences on black health. He noted, though, that because the migration of blacks from the south to the north was recent, its full impact on black health was not known. However, he documented that in Philadelphia Wards with a high proportion of immigrants, death rates were reduced because of the demographic composition of the population (“the absence of old people and children”).
