From a pharmacotherapy standpoint, several future directions should be considered. For example, further understanding the pharmacokinetics of medications, including genetically-determined differences in drug metabolism, may be helpful in elucidating medication-induced effects on the endophenotypes of interest, such as craving and subjective responses to alcohol. Considering medication pharmacokinetics also raises possibilities for differential pharmacotherapy delivery, such as depo versus oral formulations, and daily versus as needed (i.e., PRN) medication administration. In summary, the study of subjective responses to alcohol has evolved significantly over the past three decades. From the initial characterization of differential response to alcohol by sons of alcohol dependent parents, as compared to controls, to the more recent line of work using subjective response to alcohol as an endophenotype in genetic association studies and pharmacological trials. Nevertheless, considerable work has yet to be done before these advances can be translated into clinical practice. Specifically, further refining the phenotype of subjective response to alcohol and considering both genetic and environmental determinants represent two important steps in the direction of increasing consistency in the literature leading to clinical applications. The endophenotype-driven
