Alcohol-exposed children show deficits in the ability to hold and manipulate information in working memory (Green, Mihic, Nikkel, et al., 2009; Kodituwakku, et al., 1995). A frequently used measure of working memory that has been found to be sensitive to prenatal alcohol effects is the backwards condition of the digit span subtest of the Wechsler Intelligence Scales for Children (WISC). Children with heavy prenatal alcohol exposure recall fewer digits on this condition than typically developing controls (Aragon, Kalberg, et al., 2008; Carmichael Olson, et al., 1998; O'Hare et al., 2009). Furthermore, of all the WISC subtests, prenatal alcohol consumption was found to be most correlated with the digit span subtest as well as the arithmetic subtest, which also requires manipulation of information in working memory (Streissguth, et al., 1990). In addition to verbal working memory, children with FASD also struggle with visual-spatial working memory. In one study, these children committed more errors and demonstrated poorer use of strategy on a computerized task of spatial working memory (Green, Mihic, Nikkel, et al., 2009). In another study, children and adults with FASD
