For all studies, except for the European American height panel, we converted height to Z score, taking into account sex, age and disease status when appropriate. For the DGI, KORA S3, NHS, PLCO, FINRISK97, KORA S4 and PPP cohorts, we carried out association testing using a regression framework implemented in PLINK38 for genotyped markers, and in MACH2QTL (Y. Li and G.R.A., unpublished data), which takes into account dosage information (0.0-2.0), for imputed SNPs. For DGI, we used a genomic control method to correct for the presence of related individuals. Association testing in the FUSION and SardiNIA datasets was done for both genotyped and imputed SNPs using a method that allows for relatedness, estimating regression coefficients in the context of a variance components model39. Statistical analysis for the European American tall-short panel was done using a Cochran-Mantel-Haenszel (CMH) test38 stratified by the European region of origin of the grandparents.
