association between DSM-IV lifetime any mood disorders and opioid dependence (OR = 10.5) was found greater than the corresponding association for amphetamine dependence (OR = 6.9) in males [10]. Clinical recommendations for substance induced mood disorders may include watchful waiting and abstinence prior to the treatment of depression, whereas for independent mood disorders diagnosed among substance users, clinical recommendations may include immediate pharmacological treatment with concurrent psychotherapy [37]. Primary treatments for opioid dependence (e.g., methadone or buprenorphine maintenance or residential treatment) can substantially improve depression. Studies of antidepressant medications have produced mixed results, some positive but more negative [38].
