Although most women discontinue drinking once they discover they are pregnant, one study has shown that 27% of pregnant women continue to drink at some level throughout their pregnancy (Muggli et al., 2016). Women who have children with a fetal alcohol spectrum disorder drink more drinks per drinking day, consume more when they drink, and binge drink more than mothers of children who do not have a fetal alcohol spectrum disorder (May et al., 2014) and therefore are more likely to be alcohol dependent (AD) (Hill, Lowers, Locke-Wellman, & Shen, 2000; May et al., 2013). Due to assortative mating, there is a 3.4 times greater risk that the father is also AD (Tyrfingsson et al., 2010). This maternal, and likely paternal, alcohol dependence could be a key factor underlying the “link” between PAE and increased rates of externalizing disorders in PAE individuals, as these externalizing disorders are prevalent in children of alcoholics (COA) and in individuals with a family history of alcohol dependence and abuse (Kuperman, Schlosser, Lidral, & Reich, 1999; Waldron, Martin, & Heath, 2009). In particular, children of
