There are also a wide variety of animal models available for FASD research ranging from the simple (Caenorhabditis elegans, Drosophila, zebrafish, Xenopus) to the complex (rodents and non-human primates). Rodents are by far the most common model employed, with rat, mouse, and guinea pig models utilized in laboratories throughout Canada and the USA. All these models have been shown to mimic at least some aspects of the human condition including the craniofacial abnormalities (46, 47), growth retardation (48–50), physiological impairments (51–53), and cognitive deficits (42, 54–56) reviewed in Ref. (42, 57). However, similar to the variability that is observed in human beings, there is no single animal model that mimics all the features of FAS and/or FASD. When deciding on which model to utilize, it is pertinent to choose based on the research question to be examined. In this section, we will first discuss the pertinent factors to consider when designing a study of PNEE followed by a breakdown of each of the animal models, with the major strengths and limitations of each method considered. It is important to note
