Genotypes for aldehyde dehydrogenase deficiency and alcohol sensitivity. The inactive ALDH2(2) allele is dominant.
paper
Cited
Public
Unavailable
- Authors
- Crabb, D W; Edenberg, H J; Bosron, W F; Li, T K
- Year
- 1989
- Journal
- The Journal of clinical investigation
- PMID
- 2562960
- DOI
- 10.1172/JCI113875
- PMCID
- PMC303676
Many Orientals lack the mitochondrial aldehyde dehydrogenase (ALDH2) activity responsible for the oxidation of acetaldehyde produced during ethanol metabolism. These individuals suffer the alcohol-flush reaction when they drink alcoholic beverages. The alcohol-flush reaction is the result of excessive acetaldehyde accumulation, and the unpleasant symptoms tend to reduce alcohol consumption. The subunit of this homotetrameric enzyme was sequenced and the abnormality in the inactive enzyme shown to be a substitution of lysine for glutamate at position 487. We have used the polymerase chain reaction to determine the genotypes of 24 livers from Japanese individuals. Correlating genotype with phenotype leads to the conclusion that the allele (ALDH2(2)) encoding the abnormal subunit is dominant.
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| Alcohol dehydrogenase 1B genotype and fetal alcohol syndrome: a HuGE minireview. | Green RF et al. | β | 2007 | β |
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| Ascertainment bias and the pattern of nucleotide diversity at the human ALDH2 locus in a Japanese population. | Brown BT et al. | β | 2007 | β |
| Association of the aldehyde dehydrogenase 2 promoter polymorphism with alcohol consumption and reactions in an American Jewish population. | Fischer M et al. | β | 2007 | β |
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| Loss-of-function mutation in carotenoid 15,15'-monooxygenase identified in a patient with hypercarotenemia and hypovitaminosis A. | Lindqvist A et al. | β | 2007 | β |
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| The genetics of alcohol metabolism: role of alcohol dehydrogenase and aldehyde dehydrogenase variants. | Edenberg HJ | β | 2007 | β |
| A gene-gene interaction between ALDH2 Glu487Lys and ADH2 His47Arg polymorphisms regarding the risk of colorectal cancer in Japan. | Matsuo K et al. | β | 2006 | β |
| Alcohol dehydrogenase 2 His47Arg polymorphism influences drinking habit independently of aldehyde dehydrogenase 2 Glu487Lys polymorphism: analysis of 2,299 Japanese subjects. | Matsuo K et al. | β | 2006 | β |
| ALDH2 genotype-associated differences in the acute effects of alcohol on P300, psychomotor performance, and subjective response in healthy young Korean men: a double-blind placebo-controlled crossover study. | Shin HY et al. | β | 2006 | β |
| Association of alcohol-metabolizing genes with alcoholism in a Mexican Indian (Otomi) population. | Montano Loza AJ et al. | β | 2006 | β |
| Effects of variation at the ALDH2 locus on alcohol metabolism, sensitivity, consumption, and dependence in Europeans. | Dickson PA et al. | β | 2006 | β |
| Electrochemical genosensor based on peptide nucleic acid-mediated PCR and asymmetric PCR techniques: Electrostatic interactions with a metal cation. | Kerman K et al. | β | 2006 | β |
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| Influence of alcohol consumption and gene polymorphisms of ADH2 and ALDH2 on hepatocellular carcinoma in a Japanese population. | Sakamoto T et al. | β | 2006 | β |
| Interactive effects of lifetime alcohol consumption and alcohol and aldehyde dehydrogenase polymorphisms on esophageal cancer risks. | Chen YJ et al. | β | 2006 | β |
| Meta-analyses of ALDH2 and ADH1B with alcohol dependence in Asians. | Luczak SE et al. | β | 2006 | β |
| Mitochondrial aldehyde dehydrogenase-2 (ALDH2) Glu504Lys polymorphism contributes to the variation in efficacy of sublingual nitroglycerin. | Li Y et al. | β | 2006 | β |
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| The genetics of alcoholism: identifying specific genes through family studies. | Edenberg HJ et al. | β | 2006 | β |
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| Aldehyde dehydrogenase 2 plays a role in the bioactivation of nitroglycerin in humans. | Mackenzie IS et al. | β | 2005 | β |
| Effect of ethanol on metabolism of purine bases (hypoxanthine, xanthine, and uric acid). | Yamamoto T et al. | β | 2005 | β |
| Genetic associations of alcohol dehydrogenase with alcohol use disorders and endophenotypes in white college students. | Wall TL et al. | β | 2005 | β |
| Genetic polymorphism of aldehyde dehydrogenase 2 (ALDH2) in a Chinese population: gender, age, culture, and genotypes of ALDH2. | Luo HR et al. | β | 2005 | β |
| Molecular cloning, baculovirus expression, and tissue distribution of the zebrafish aldehyde dehydrogenase 2. | Lassen N et al. | β | 2005 | β |
| Psychosocial, cultural and genetic influences on alcohol use in Asian American youth. | Hendershot CS et al. | β | 2005 | β |
| Relationship between genetic polymorphisms of alcohol and aldehyde dehydrogenases and esophageal squamous cell carcinoma risk in males. | Wu CF et al. | β | 2005 | β |
| Risk of multiple squamous cell carcinomas both in the esophagus and the head and neck region. | Muto M et al. | β | 2005 | β |
| ALDH2/ADH2 polymorphism associated with vasculopathy and neuropathy in type 2 diabetes. | Suzuki Y et al. | β | 2004 | β |
| ALDH2 status and conduct disorder mediate the relationship between ethnicity and alcohol dependence in Chinese, Korean, and White American college students. | Luczak SE et al. | β | 2004 | β |
| Functional polymorphisms in the sigma1 receptor gene associated with alcoholism. | Miyatake R et al. | β | 2004 | β |
| Genes associated with addiction: alcoholism, opiate, and cocaine addiction. | Kreek MJ et al. | β | 2004 | β |
| Influence of genetic variations of ethanol-metabolizing enzymes on phenotypes of alcohol-related disorders. | Higuchi S et al. | β | 2004 | β |
| Overview of the role of alcohol dehydrogenase and aldehyde dehydrogenase and their variants in the genesis of alcohol-related pathology. | Crabb DW et al. | β | 2004 | β |
| Possible interaction of alcohol dehydrogenase and aldehyde dehydrogenase genes with the dopamine D2 receptor gene in anxiety-depressive alcohol dependence. | Huang SY et al. | β | 2004 | β |
| Acetaldehyde, microbes, and cancer of the digestive tract. | Salaspuro MP | β | 2003 | β |
| Alcohol consumption and cancer of the gastrointestinal tract. | Salaspuro MP | β | 2003 | β |
| Aldehyde dehydrogenase 2 genotypes, alcohol flushing symptoms and drinking patterns in Thai men. | Assanangkornchai S et al. | β | 2003 | β |
| Current concepts in alcohol metabolism. | CaballerΓa J | β | 2003 | β |
| Deficiency in a mitochondrial aldehyde dehydrogenase increases vulnerability to oxidative stress in PC12 cells. | Ohsawa I et al. | β | 2003 | β |
| Effects of ALDH2 gene polymorphisms and alcohol-drinking behavior on micronuclei frequency in non-smokers. | Ishikawa H et al. | β | 2003 | β |
| Genetic deficiency of a mitochondrial aldehyde dehydrogenase increases serum lipid peroxides in community-dwelling females. | Ohsawa I et al. | β | 2003 | β |
| Human aldehyde dehydrogenases: potential pathological, pharmacological, and toxicological impact. | SlΓ‘dek NE | β | 2003 | β |
| Liability to substance use disorders: 1. Common mechanisms and manifestations. | Vanyukov MM et al. | β | 2003 | β |
| Protective association of genetic variation in alcohol dehydrogenase with alcohol dependence in Native American Mission Indians. | Wall TL et al. | β | 2003 | β |
| Role of alcohol and genetic polymorphisms of CYP2E1 and ALDH2 in breast cancer development. | Choi JY et al. | β | 2003 | β |
| Simultaneous genotyping of alcohol dehydrogenase 2 and aldehyde dehydrogenase 2 by single-strand conformation polymorphism analysis. | Sakata R et al. | β | 2003 | β |
| Single-nucleotide polymorphism analysis using fluorescence resonance energy transfer between DNA-labeling fluorophore, fluorescein isothiocyanate, and DNA intercalator, POPO-3, on bacterial magnetic particles. | Nakayama H et al. | β | 2003 | β |
| The ADH3*2 and CYP2E1 c2 alleles increase the risk of alcoholism in Mexican American men. | Konishi T et al. | β | 2003 | β |
| Effects of aldehyde dehydrogenase-2 genetic polymorphisms on metabolism of structurally different aldehydes in human liver. | Wang RS et al. | β | 2002 | β |
| Single-nucleotide polymorphism analysis by hybridization protection assay on solid support. | Goto S et al. | β | 2002 | β |
| Transcriptional control of the human aldehyde dehydrogenase 2 promoter by hepatocyte nuclear factor 4: inhibition by cyclic AMP and COUP transcription factors. | You M et al. | β | 2002 | β |
| A genetic association with the development of alcohol and other substance use behavior in Asian Americans. | Wall TL et al. | β | 2001 | β |
| Alcohol dehydrogenase-2*2 allele is associated with decreased prevalence of fetal alcohol syndrome in the mixed-ancestry population of the Western Cape Province, South Africa. | Viljoen DL et al. | β | 2001 | β |
| Alcoholism, ALDH2*2 allele and the A1 allele of the dopamine D2 receptor gene: an association study. | Matsushita S et al. | β | 2001 | β |
| Detection of usual and atypical aldehyde dehydrogenase alleles by mismatch amplification mutation assay. | Luo HR et al. | β | 2001 | β |
| Genetic and environmental influences on alcohol metabolism in humans. | Li TK et al. | β | 2001 | β |
| Genetic polymorphisms in drug-metabolizing enzymes and drug targets. | Hiratsuka M et al. | β | 2001 | β |
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| Research advances in ethanol metabolism. | Ramchandani VA et al. | β | 2001 | β |
| Subunit communication in tetrameric class 2 human liver aldehyde dehydrogenase as the basis for half-of-the-site reactivity and the dominance of the oriental subunit in a heterotetramer. | Weiner H et al. | β | 2001 | β |
| Aldehyde dehydrogenase (ALDH) 2 associates with oxidation of methoxyacetaldehyde; in vitro analysis with liver subcellular fraction derived from human and Aldh2 gene targeting mouse. | Kitagawa K et al. | β | 2000 | β |
| Cooperativity in nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide binding induced by mutations of arginine 475 located at the subunit interface in the human liver mitochondrial class 2 aldehyde dehydrogenase. | Wei B et al. | β | 2000 | β |
| Deficiency in mitochondrial aldehyde dehydrogenase increases the risk for late-onset Alzheimer's disease in the Japanese population. | Kamino K et al. | β | 2000 | β |
| Fatal acute alcohol intoxication in an ALDH2 heterozygote: a case report. | Yamamoto H et al. | β | 2000 | β |
| Genetic studies of substance abuse. | Vanyukov MM et al. | β | 2000 | β |
| The retinoid X receptor response element in the human aldehyde dehydrogenase 2 promoter is antagonized by the chicken ovalbumin upstream promoter family of orphan receptors. | Pinaire J et al. | β | 2000 | β |
| Alcohol and aldehyde dehydrogenase gene polymorphisms influence susceptibility to esophageal cancer in Japanese alcoholics. | Yokoyama A et al. | β | 1999 | β |
| Alcoholic typology and season of birth. | Levine ME et al. | β | 1999 | β |
| Aldehyde dehydrogenase genotypes and male alcohol use disorders: a case-control study in Khon Kaen, north-east Thailand. | Nanakorn S et al. | β | 1999 | β |
| An A/G polymorphism in the promoter of mitochondrial aldehyde dehydrogenase (ALDH2): effects of the sequence variant on transcription factor binding and promoter strength. | Chou WY et al. | β | 1999 | β |
| Genotypes of alcohol-metabolizing enzymes in relation to alcoholic chronic pancreatitis in Japan. | Maruyama K et al. | β | 1999 | β |
| Interaction between the functional polymorphisms of the alcohol-metabolism genes in protection against alcoholism. | Chen CC et al. | β | 1999 | β |
| Joint multipoint linkage analysis of multivariate qualitative and quantitative traits. II. Alcoholism and event-related potentials. | Williams JT et al. | β | 1999 | β |
| Self-reported alcohol-associated symptoms and drinking behavior in three ALDH2 genotypes among Japanese university students. | Takeshita T et al. | β | 1999 | β |
| The role of alcohol dehydrogenase 2 and aldehyde dehydrogenase 2 genotypes in alcohol-induced vasospastic angina. | Seki T et al. | β | 1999 | β |
| Association of polymorphism in the alcohol dehydrogenase 2 gene with alcohol-related organ injuries, especially liver cirrhosis. | Yamauchi M | β | 1998 | β |
| Clinical characteristics and disease course of alcoholics with inactive aldehyde dehydrogenase-2. | Murayama M et al. | β | 1998 | β |
| Sheep liver cytosolic aldehyde dehydrogenase: the structure reveals the basis for the retinal specificity of class 1 aldehyde dehydrogenases. | Moore SA et al. | β | 1998 | β |
| Studies on the enzymology of aldehyde dehydrogenase-2 in genetically modified HeLa cells. | Crabb D et al. | β | 1998 | β |
| Acute reactions to alcohol. | Whitfield JB | β | 1997 | β |
| Alcohol dehydrogenase and aldehyde dehydrogenase genotypes and alcoholism among Taiwanese aborigines. | Chen WJ et al. | β | 1997 | β |
| Allele frequency of ADH2 and ALDH2 among Brazilians of different ethnic groups. | Santos BR et al. | β | 1997 | β |
| Genetic polymorphisms of tobacco- and alcohol-related metabolizing enzymes and human esophageal squamous cell carcinoma susceptibility. | Hori H et al. | β | 1997 | β |
| Genotypes of aldehyde dehydrogenase and alcohol dehydrogenase polymorphisms in patients with Leber's hereditary optic neuropathy. | Isashiki Y et al. | β | 1997 | β |
| Polymorphism of ADH and ALDH genes among four ethnic groups in China and effects upon the risk for alcoholism. | Shen YC et al. | β | 1997 | β |
| Polymorphism of alcohol-metabolizing genes affects drinking behavior and alcoholic liver disease in Japanese men. | Tanaka F et al. | β | 1997 | β |
| Relationship between the flushing response and drinking behavior among Japanese high school students. | Suzuki K et al. | β | 1997 | β |
| Simple and rapid determination of the acetaldehyde dehydrogenase (ALDH2) genotypes by nonradioactive single-strand conformation polymorphism analysis. | Yuasa I et al. | β | 1997 | β |
| Structure of mitochondrial aldehyde dehydrogenase: the genetic component of ethanol aversion. | Steinmetz CG et al. | β | 1997 | β |
| The dopamine D4 receptor gene (DRD4) is not associated with alcoholism in three Taiwanese populations: six polymorphisms tested separately and as haplotypes. | Chang FM et al. | β | 1997 | β |
| Acetaminophen metabolism in patients with different cytochrome P-4502E1 genotypes. | Ueshima Y et al. | β | 1996 | β |
| Alcohol and aldehyde dehydrogenase genotypes and drinking behavior in Japanese. | Higuchi S et al. | β | 1996 | β |
| Alcohol-metabolising genes and alcoholism among Taiwanese Han men: independent effect of ADH2, ADH3 and ALDH2. | Chen WJ et al. | β | 1996 | β |
| Alcohol reactions in subjects of European descent: effects on alcohol use and on physical and psychomotor responses to alcohol. | Whitfield JB et al. | β | 1996 | β |
| Association between alcoholism and the dopamine D4 receptor gene. | Muramatsu T et al. | β | 1996 | β |
| Association of aldehyde dehydrogenase with inheritance of NIDDM. | Suzuki Y et al. | β | 1996 | β |
| Association of restriction fragment-length polymorphisms in the alcohol dehydrogenase 2 gene with alcoholic brain atrophy. | Maezawa Y et al. | β | 1996 | β |
| Effects of genetic polymorphisms in alcohol-metabolizing enzymes on alcohol hypersensitivity and alcohol-related health problems in orientals. | Takeshita T et al. | β | 1996 | β |
| Ethanol and acetaldehyde metabolism: past, present, and future. | Kitson KE | β | 1996 | β |
| Genetic regulation of gene-specific mRNA by ethanol in vivo and its possible role in ethanol preference in a cross with RI lines in mice. | Tagliabracci CE et al. | β | 1996 | β |
| Genetics of alcoholism: an international perspective. | Grau C | β | 1996 | β |
| Genotypes of alcohol-metabolizing enzymes and the risk for alcoholic chronic pancreatitis in Japanese alcoholics. | Matsumoto M et al. | β | 1996 | β |
| Habitual and genetic factors that affect urinary background levels of biomarkers for organic solvent exposure. | Kawamoto T et al. | β | 1996 | β |
| Heterotetramers of human liver mitochondrial (class 2) aldehyde dehydrogenase expressed in Escherichia coli. A model to study the heterotetramers expected to be found in Oriental people. | Wang X et al. | β | 1996 | β |
| Issues in genetic testing for susceptibility to alcoholism: lessons from Alzheimer's disease and Huntington's disease. | Quaid KA et al. | β | 1996 | β |
| Multiple primary esophageal and concurrent upper aerodigestive tract cancer and the aldehyde dehydrogenase-2 genotype of Japanese alcoholics. | Yokoyama A et al. | β | 1996 | β |
| Mutational analysis of the human MAOA gene. | Tivol EA et al. | β | 1996 | β |
| No evidence of association between structural polymorphism at the dopamine D3 receptor locus and alcoholism in the Japanese. | Higuchi S et al. | β | 1996 | β |
| Polymorphisms of ethanol-oxidizing enzymes in alcoholics with inactive ALDH2. | Higuchi S et al. | β | 1996 | β |
| The mutation in the mitochondrial aldehyde dehydrogenase (ALDH2) gene responsible for alcohol-induced flushing increases turnover of the enzyme tetramers in a dominant fashion. | Xiao Q et al. | β | 1996 | β |
| Acute effects of alcohol on P300 in Asians with different ALDH2 genotypes. | Wall TL et al. | β | 1995 | β |
| Alcohol and aldehyde dehydrogenase genotypes and drinking behavior of Chinese living in Shanghai. | Muramatsu T et al. | β | 1995 | β |
| Alcohol and aldehyde dehydrogenase polymorphisms and the risk for alcoholism. | Higuchi S et al. | β | 1995 | β |
| Alcohol consumption by orientals in North America is predicted largely by a single gene. | Tu GC et al. | β | 1995 | β |
| Alcohol-metabolizing enzyme polymorphisms and alcoholism in Japan. | Maezawa Y et al. | β | 1995 | β |
| Analysis of MAOA mutations in humans. | Hsu YP et al. | β | 1995 | β |
| CYP2E1 and ALDH2 genotypes and alcohol dependence in Japanese. | Iwahashi K et al. | β | 1995 | β |
| Mitochondrial aldehyde dehydrogenase polymorphism in Asian and American Indian populations: detection of new ALDH2 alleles. | Novoradovsky A et al. | β | 1995 | β |
| Molecular biological aspects of alcohol-induced liver disease. | Arnon R et al. | β | 1995 | β |
| Rat mitochondrial aldehyde dehydrogenase polymorphism and major histocompatibility complex RT1.A phenotypes are not associated with alcohol drinking in P and NP rats. | Carr LG et al. | β | 1995 | β |
| The aldehyde dehydrogenase ALDH2*2 allele exhibits dominance over ALDH2*1 in transduced HeLa cells. | Xiao Q et al. | β | 1995 | β |
| Aldehyde dehydrogenase genotypes in Japanese alcoholics. | Higuchi S et al. | β | 1994 | β |
| ALDH2 polymorphism and biological monitoring of toluene. | Kawamoto T et al. | β | 1994 | β |
| Analysis of the genotypes for aldehyde dehydrogenase 2 in Japanese patients with primary gout. | Yamanaka H et al. | β | 1994 | β |
| Characterization of the three genotypes of low Km aldehyde dehydrogenase in a Japanese population. | Takeshita T et al. | β | 1994 | β |
| Distribution of urinary hippuric acid concentrations by ALDH2 genotype. | Kawamoto T et al. | β | 1994 | β |
| Effects of changing glutamate 487 to lysine in rat and human liver mitochondrial aldehyde dehydrogenase. A model to study human (Oriental type) class 2 aldehyde dehydrogenase. | FarrΓ©s J et al. | β | 1994 | β |
| Genetic differences in drug disposition. | May DG | β | 1994 | β |
| Genetic polymorphisms in xenobiotic metabolism. | Smith CA et al. | β | 1994 | β |
| Genetic polymorphisms of cytochrome P4502E1 related to the development of alcoholic liver disease. | Tsutsumi M et al. | β | 1994 | β |
| Hereditary variations in monoamine oxidase as a risk factor for Parkinson's disease. | Hotamisligil GS et al. | β | 1994 | β |
| Low frequency of the ADH2*2 allele among Atayal natives of Taiwan with alcohol use disorders. | Thomasson HR et al. | β | 1994 | β |
| Polymorphism of alcohol and aldehyde dehydrogenase genes and alcoholic cirrhosis in Chinese patients. | Chao YC et al. | β | 1994 | β |
| Studies on vocal fold injection and changes in pitch associated with alcohol intake. | Watanabe H et al. | β | 1994 | β |
| Alcohol and aldehyde dehydrogenase polymorphisms and alcoholism. | Thomasson HR et al. | β | 1993 | β |
| Alcohol consumption, Lewis phenotypes, and FEV1. | Goldstein MR | β | 1993 | β |
| Aldehyde dehydrogenases: widespread structural and functional diversity within a shared framework. | Hempel J et al. | β | 1993 | β |
| Association of restriction fragment length polymorphism in alcohol dehydrogenase 2 gene with alcohol induced liver damage. | Sherman DI et al. | β | 1993 | β |
| Aversive reactions and alcohol use in Europeans. | Whitfield JB et al. | β | 1993 | β |
| Biological monitoring of toluene and DNA polymorphism in humans. | Kawamoto T et al. | β | 1993 | β |
| Determination of human alcohol dehydrogenase and acetaldehyde dehydrogenase genotypes by single strand conformation polymorphism in discontinuous buffer electrophoresis. | Walzer C et al. | β | 1993 | β |
| Effects of alcohol on the EEG in Asian men with genetic variations of ALDH2. | Wall TL et al. | β | 1993 | β |
| Phenotypic differences in low Km aldehyde dehydrogenase in Japanese workers. | Takeshita T et al. | β | 1993 | β |
| Why there is no gene for alcoholism. | Devor EJ | β | 1993 | β |
| A non-radioactive method for the detection of a common mutant allele of aldehyde dehydrogenase 2. | Kawaguchi R et al. | β | 1992 | β |
| Genetic polymorphism and activities of human lung alcohol and aldehyde dehydrogenases: implications for ethanol metabolism and cytotoxicity. | Yin SJ et al. | β | 1992 | β |
| Genetic predisposition to alcoholic liver disease. | Day CP et al. | β | 1992 | β |
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| Alcohol and aldehyde dehydrogenase genotypes and alcoholism in Chinese men. | Thomasson HR et al. | β | 1991 | β |
| Alcoholic liver disease in heterozygotes of mutant and normal aldehyde dehydrogenase-2 genes. | Enomoto N et al. | β | 1991 | β |
| A polymorphism in the rat liver mitochondrial ALDH2 gene is associated with alcohol drinking behavior. | Carr L et al. | β | 1991 | β |
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| Genotyping of the aldehyde dehydrogenase 2 (ALDH2) gene using the polymerase chain reaction: evidence for single point mutation in the ALDH2 gene of ALDH2-deficiency. | Enomoto N et al. | β | 1991 | β |
| Investigation of the role of polymorphisms at the alcohol and aldehyde dehydrogenase loci in genetic predisposition to alcohol-related end-organ damage. | Day CP et al. | β | 1991 | β |
| Polymorphism of the rat liver mitochondrial aldehyde dehydrogenase cDNA. | Carr LG et al. | β | 1991 | β |
| Biological markers for increased risk of alcoholism and for quantitation of alcohol consumption. | Crabb DW | β | 1990 | β |
| Genotyping of mitochondrial aldehyde dehydrogenase locus of Native American Indians. | O'Dowd BF et al. | β | 1990 | β |
| Isoenzymes of aldehyde dehydrogenase in human lymphocytes. | Dyck LE | β | 1990 | β |
| Molecular genetics of chronic liver diseases. | Brind AM et al. | β | 1990 | β |
| The genetics of human alcohol metabolism. | Chambers GK | β | 1990 | β |
| The role of inheritance in behavior. | Plomin R | β | 1990 | β |
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| Structure and expression of the rat class I alcohol dehydrogenase gene. | Crabb DW et al. | β | 1989 | β |