The global epidemiology and contribution of cannabis use and dependence to the global burden of disease: results from the GBD 2010 study.
paper
Cited
Public
- Authors
- Degenhardt, Louisa; Ferrari, Alize J; Calabria, Bianca; Hall, Wayne D; Norman, Rosana E; McGrath, John; Flaxman, Abraham D; Engell, Rebecca E; Freedman, Greg D; Whiteford, Harvey A; Vos, Theo
- Year
- 2013
- Journal
- PloS one
- PMID
- 24204649
- DOI
- 10.1371/journal.pone.0076635
- PMCID
- PMC3811989
AIMS: Estimate the prevalence of cannabis dependence and its contribution to the global burden of disease. METHODS: Systematic reviews of epidemiological data on cannabis dependence (1990-2008) were conducted in line with PRISMA and meta-analysis of Observational Studies in Epidemiology (MOOSE) guidelines. Culling and data extraction followed protocols, with cross-checking and consistency checks. DisMod-MR, the latest version of generic disease modelling system, redesigned as a Bayesian meta-regression tool, imputed prevalence by age, year and sex for 187 countries and 21 regions. The disability weight associated with cannabis dependence was estimated through population surveys and multiplied by prevalence data to calculate the years of life lived with disability (YLDs) and disability-adjusted life years (DALYs). YLDs and DALYs attributed to regular cannabis use as a risk factor for schizophrenia were also estimated. RESULTS: There were an estimated 13.1 million cannabis dependent people globally in 2010 (point prevalence0.19% (95% uncertainty: 0.17-0.21%)). Prevalence peaked between 20-24 yrs, was higher in males (0.23% (0.2-0.27%)) than females (0.14% (0.12-0.16%)) and in high income regions. Cannabis dependence accounted for 2 million DALYs globally (0.08%; 0.05-0.12%) in 2010; a 22% increase in crude DALYs since 1990 largely due to population growth. Countries with statistically higher age-standardised DALY rates included the United States, Canada, Australia, New Zealand and Western European countries such as the United Kingdom; those with lower DALY rates were from Sub-Saharan Africa-West and Latin America. Regular cannabis use as a risk factor for schizophrenia accounted for an estimated 7,000 DALYs globally. CONCLUSION: Cannabis dependence is a disorder primarily experienced by young adults, especially in higher income countries. It has not been shown to increase mortality as opioid and other forms of illicit drug dependence do. Our estimates suggest that cannabis use as a risk factor for schizophrenia is not a major contributor to population-level disease burden.
Estimated prevalence (proportion) of cannabis dependence by age, sex and region, 2010.
Pooled regional prevalence of cannabis dependence, 2010. Note. Prevalence estimates were standardised by population age and sex; AP-HI: Asia Pacific, High Income, As-C: Asia Central, AS-E: Asia East, AS-S: Asia South, A-SE: Asia Southeast, Aus: Australasia, Caribb: Caribbean, Eur-C: Europe Central, Eur-E: Europe Eastern, Eur-W: Europe Western, LA-An: Latin America, Andean, LA-C: Latin America, Central, LA-Sth: Latin America, Southern, LA-Trop: Latin America, Tropical, Nafr-ME: North Africa/Middle East, Nam-HI: North America, High Income, Oc: Oceania, SSA-C: Sub-Saharan Africa, Central, SSA-E: Sub-Saharan Africa, East, SSA-S: Sub-Saharan Africa Southern, SSA-W: Sub-Saharan Africa, West.
Global cannabis dependence DALYs (all YLDs) by age and sex, in thousands, 2010.
Country-level DALYs per 100,000 population for cannabis dependence, age-standardised, for 2010.Note. Low: shows countries with statistically lower DALY rates than global mean; Middle: Shows countries with DALY rates that are not statistically different to global mean; High: Shows countries with statistically higher DALY rates than global mean.
The proportion of DALYs due to cannabis dependence relative to other substance use disorders in GBD 2010. Note. Alcohol use disorders included alcohol dependence and foetal alcohol syndrome; Other drugs: Burden attributable to illicit drug types other than cannabis, opioid, amphetamine and cocaine dependence were estimated under residual categories in GBD 2010.
β Prev
41β48 of 48
No entities extracted from this document yet.
No uploaded files.
Not in any collection.
| Citation | PMID | DOI | Status |
|---|---|---|---|
| AboodME, MartinBR (1992) Neurobiology of marijuana abuse. Trends Pharmacol Sci 13: 201-206. doi:10.1016/0165-6147(92)90064-D. PubMed: 1604713.1604713 | β | β | β |
| Ajdacic-GrossV, LauberC, WarnkeI, HackerH, MurrayRM et al. (2009) Changing incidence of psychotic disorders among the young in Zurich. Schizophr Res 95: 9-18.10.1016/j.schres.2007.06.00117630260 | β | β | β |
| American Psychiatric Association (2000) Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (fourth Edition - Technical Revision). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association. | β | β | β |
| ArseneaultL, CannonM, WittonJ, MurrayRM (2004) Causal association between cannabis and psychosis: Examination of the evidence. Br J Psychiatry 184: 110-117. doi:10.1192/bjp.184.2.110. PubMed: 14754822.14754822 | β | β | β |
| BankWorld (1993) World Development Report 1993: investing in health. New York: Oxford University Press. | β | β | β |
| BarendregtJJ, Van OortmarssenGJ, VosT, MurrayCJ (2003) A generic model for the assessment of disease epidemiology: the computational basis of DisMod II. Popul Health Metr 1: 4. doi:10.1186/1478-7954-1-4. PubMed: 12773212.12773212PMC156029 | β | β | β |
| CalabriaB, DegenhardtL, BrieglebC, VosT, HallW et al. (2010) Systematic reviews of prospective studies investigating βremissionβ from amphetamine, cannabis, cocaine and opioid dependence. Addict Behav 35: 741-749. doi:10.1016/j.addbeh.2010.03.019. PubMed: 20444552.20444552 | β | β | β |
| CalabriaB, DegenhardtL, HallW, LynskeyM (2008) Cannabis related mortality Discussion Paper No. 3 Sydney: National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre, University of NSW. | β | β | β |
| CalabriaB, DegenhardtL, HallW, LynskeyM (2010) Does cannabis use increase the risk of death? Systematic review of epidemiological evidence on adverse effects of cannabis use. Drug Alcohol Rev 29: 318-330. doi:10.1111/j.1465-3362.2009.00149.x. PubMed: 20565525.20565525 | β | β | β |
| CalabriaB, DegenhardtL, NelsonP, BucelloC, HallW et al. (2010) What do we know about the extent of cannabis use and dependence? Results of a global systematic review NDARC Technical Report No. 307 Sydney: National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre, University of NSW. | β | β | β |
| DegenhardtL, BucelloC, CalabriaB, NelsonP, RobertsA et al. (2011) What data are available on the extent of illicit drug use and dependence globally? Results of four systematic reviews. Drug Alcohol Depend 117: 85-101. doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2010.11.032. PubMed: 21377813.21377813 | β | β | β |
| DegenhardtL, BucelloC, CalabriaB, NelsonP, RobertsA et al. (2013) What data are available on the extent of illicit drug use and dependence globally? Results of four systematic reviews. Drug Alcohol Depend. doi:10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2010.11.032. In press 21377813 | β | β | β |
| DegenhardtL, HallW (2012) Extent of illicit drug use and dependence, and their contribution to the global burden of disease. Lancet 379: 55-70. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(11)61611-5. PubMed: 22225671.22225671 | β | β | β |
| DegenhardtL, HallW, LynskeyM (2003) Testing hypotheses about the relationship between cannabis and psychosis. Drug Alcohol Depend 71: 37-48. doi:10.1016/S0376-8716(03)00064-4. PubMed: 12821204.12821204 | β | β | β |
| DegenhardtL, HallW, LynskeyM, McGrathJ, McLarenJ et al. (2009) Should we make burden of disease estimates for cannabis use as a risk factor for psychosis? PLOS Med 6. doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.1000133.PMC274157319787023 | β | β | β |
| DegenhardtL, HallWD (2006) Is cannabis a contributory cause of psychosis? Can J Psychiatry 51.10.1177/07067437060510090317007222 | β | β | β |
| DegenhardtL, HallWD, LynskeyM, Warner-SmithM (2004) Illicit drug use. In: EzzatiMLopezADRodgersAMurrayC Comparative Quantification of Health Risks: Global and Regional Burden of Disease Attributable to Selected Major Risk Factors. Geneva: World Health Organisation pp. 1109-1176. | β | β | β |
| DenisC, LavieE, FatseasM, AuriacombeM (2006) Psychotherapeutic interventions for cannabis abuse and/or dependence in outpatient settings. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 3.10.1002/14651858.CD005336.pub216856093 | β | β | β |
| FerrariAJ, SahaS, McGrathJJ, NormanR, BaxterAJ et al. (2012) Health states for schizophrenia and bipolar disorder within the Global Burden of Disease 2010 Study. Popul Health Metrics 10: 16. doi:10.1186/1478-7954-10-16. PubMed: 22913393.PMC349092722913393 | β | β | β |
| FlaxmanAD, VosT, MurrayCJL (2013) An integrative metaregression framework for descriptive epidemiology. Seattle: University of Washington Press. | β | β | β |
| FotiDJ, KotovR, GueyLT, BrometEJ (2010) Cannabis use and the course of schizophrenia: 10-year follow-up after first hospitalization. Am J Psychiatry 167: 987-993. doi:10.1176/appi.ajp.2010.09020189. PubMed: 20478874.20478874PMC3594105 | β | β | β |
| GaoniY, MechoulamR (1964) Isolation, structure, and partial synthesis of an active constituent of hashish. J Am Chem Soc 86: 1646-1647. doi:10.1021/ja01062a046. | β | β | β |
| GreenB, YoungR, KavanaghD (2005) Cannabis use and misuse prevalence among people with psychosis. Br J Psychiatry 187: 306-313. doi:10.1192/bjp.187.4.306. PubMed: 16199787.16199787 | β | β | β |
| HallW, DegenhardtL (2006) What are the policy implications of the evidence on cannabis and psychosis? Can J Psychiatry 51: 566-574. PubMed: 17007223.1700722310.1177/070674370605100904 | β | β | β |
| HallW, DegenhardtL (2007) Prevalence and correlates of cannabis use in developed and developing countries. Curr Opin Psychiatry 20: 393-397. doi:10.1097/YCO.0b013e32812144cc. PubMed: 17551355.17551355 | β | β | β |
| HallW, DegenhardtL (2009) Adverse health effects of non-medical cannabis use. Lancet 374: 1383-1391. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(09)61037-0. PubMed: 19837255.19837255 | β | β | β |
| HallW, DegenhardtL, LynskeyM (2001) The health and psychological consequences of cannabis use. Canberra: Australian Publishing Service. | β | β | β |
| HallW, JohnstonL, DonnellyN (1999) Epidemiology of cannabis use and its consequesnces. In: KalantHCorrigallWHallWSmartR The health effects of cannabis. Toronto: Centre for Addiction and Mental Health pp. 71-125. | β | β | β |
| HallWD (1998) Cannabis use and psychosis. Drug Alcohol Rev 17: 433-444. doi:10.1080/09595239800187271. PubMed: 16203510.16203510 | β | β | β |
| HambrechtM, HΓ€fnerH (2000) Cannabis, vulnerability, and the onset of schizophrenia: An epidemiological perspective. Aust N Z J Psychiatry 34: 468-475. doi:10.1080/j.1440-1614.2000.00736.x. PubMed: 10881971.10881971 | β | β | β |
| HenquetC, Di FortiM, MorrisonPD, KuepperR, MurrayRM (2008) Gene-environment interplay between cannabis and psychosis. Schizophr Bull 34: 1111-1121. doi:10.1093/schbul/sbn108. PubMed: 18723841.18723841PMC2632498 | β | β | β |
| HickmanM, VickermanP, MacLeodJ, KirkbrideJ, JonesPB (2007) Cannabis and schizophrenia: model projections of the impact of the rise in cannabis use on historical and furture trends in schizophrenia in England and Wales. Addiction 102: 597-606. doi:10.1111/j.1360-0443.2006.01710.x. PubMed: 17362293.17362293 | β | β | β |
| IversenLL (2000) The science of marijuana. Oxford University Press. | β | β | β |
| KnappW, SoaresB, FarrelM, LimaM (2007) Psychosocial interventions for cocaine and psychostimulant amphetamines related disorders. Cochrane: Database Syst Rev.10.1002/14651858.CD003023.pub217636713 | β | β | β |
| LargeM, SharmaS, ComptonMT, SladeT, NielssenO (2011) Cannabis Use and Earlier Onset of Psychosis: A Systematic Meta-analysis. Arch Gen Psychiatry: archgenpsychiatry 2011: 2015 PubMed: 21300939.10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2011.521300939 | β | β | β |
| LimSS, VosT, FlaxmanAD, DanaeiG, ShibuyaK et al. (2012) A comparative risk assessment of burden of disease and injury attributable to 67 risk factors and risk factor clusters in 21 regions, 1990-2010: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2010. Lancet 380: 2224-2260. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(12)61766-8. PubMed: 23245609.23245609PMC4156511 | β | β | β |
| LopezAD, MathersCD, EzzatiM, JamisonDT, MurrayCJ (2006) Global and regional burden of disease and risk factors, 2001: systematic analysis of population health data. Lancet 367: 1747-1757. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(06)68770-9. PubMed: 16731270.16731270 | β | β | β |
| LozanoR, NaghaviM, ForemanK, LimS, ShibuyaK et al. (2012) Global and regional mortality from 235 causes of death for 20 age groups in 1990 and 2010: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2010. Lancet 380: 2095-2128. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(12)61728-0. PubMed: 23245604.23245604PMC10790329 | β | β | β |
| MartinB, ConeE (1999) Chemistry and pharmacology of cannabis. In: KalantHCorrigalWHallWSmartR The Health Effects of Cannabis. Toronto: Addiction Research Foundation pp. 19-68. | β | β | β |
| MoherD, LiberatiA, TetzlaffJ, AltmanDG (2009) Preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses: the PRISMA statement. Ann Intern Med 151: 264β9, W64 doi:10.7326/0003-4819-151-4-200908180-00135. PubMed: 19622511.19622511 | β | β | β |
| MooreTH, ZammitS, Lingford-HughesA, BarnesTR, JonesPB et al. (2007) Cannabis use and risk of psychotic or affective mental health outcomes: a systematic review. Lancet 370: 319-328. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(07)61162-3. PubMed: 17662880.17662880 | β | β | β |
| MurrayCJ, LopezAD (1996) The global burden of disease: A comprehensive assessment of mortality and disability from diseases, injuries and risk factors in 1990 and projected to 2020; MurrayCJLopezAD Harvard University Press. | β | β | β |
| MurrayCJL, VosT, LozanoR, NaghaviM, FlaxmanAD et al. (2012) Disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) for 291 diseases and injuries in 21 regions, 1990-2010: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2010. Lancet 380: 2197-2223. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(12)61689-4. PubMed: 23245608.23245608 | β | β | β |
| PrinceM, PatelV, SaxenaS, MajM, MaselkoJ et al. (2007) No health without mental health. Lancet 370: 859-877. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(07)61238-0. PubMed: 17804063.17804063 | β | β | β |
| SahaS, ChantD, WelhamJ, McGrathJ (2005) A systematic review of the prevalence of schizophrenia. PLOS Med 2: e141. doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.0020141. PubMed: 15916472.15916472PMC1140952 | β | β | β |
| SalomonJA (2010) New disability weights for the global burden of disease. Bull World Health Organ 88: 879-879. doi:10.2471/BLT.10.084301. PubMed: 21124707.21124707PMC2995197 | β | β | β |
| SalomonJA, VosT, HoganDR, GagnonM, NaghaviM et al. (2012) Common values in assessing health outcomes from disease and injury: disability weights measurement study for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2010. Lancet 380: 2129-2143. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(12)61680-8. PubMed: 23245605.23245605PMC10782811 | β | β | β |
| StinsonFS, RuanWJ, PickeringR, GrantBF (2006) Cannabis use disorders in the USA: prevalence, correlates and co-morbidity. Psychol Med 36: 1447-1460. doi:10.1017/S0033291706008361. PubMed: 16854249.16854249 | β | β | β |
| StroupDF, BerlinJA, MortonSC, OlkinI, WilliamsonGD et al. (2000) Meta-analysis of observational studies in epidemiology: A proposal for reporting. JAMA 283: 2008-2012. doi:10.1001/jama.283.15.2008. PubMed: 10789670.10789670 | β | β | β |
| United Nations Office of Drugs and Crime (2008) World Drug Report. | β | β | β |
| United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (2008). World Drug Report 2008 Vienna: United Nations. | β | β | β |
| von ElmE, AltmanDG, EggerM, PocockSJ, GΓΈtzschePC et al. (2007) The Strengthening the Reporting of Observational Studies in Epidemiology (STROBE) statement: Guidelines for reporting observational studies. Lancet 370: 1453-1457. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(07)61602-X. PubMed: 18064739.18064739 | β | β | β |
| VosT, FlaxmanAD, NaghaviM, LozanoR, MichaudC et al. (2012) Years lived with disability (YLDs) for 1160 sequelae of 289 diseases and injuries 1990-2010: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2010. Lancet 380: 2163-2196. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(12)61729-2. PubMed: 23245607.23245607PMC6350784 | β | β | β |
| World Health Organization (1993) The ICD-10 Classification of Mental and Behavioural Disorders - Diagnostic Criteria for Research. Geneva: World Health Organization. | β | β | β |
| World Health Organization (2008) The global burden of disease: 2004 update. Geneva: World Health Organization. | β | β | β |
| ZammitS, MooreTM, Lingford-HughesA, BarnesTR, JonesPB et al. (2008) Effects of cannabis use on outcomes of psychotic disorders: systematic review. Br J Psychiatry 193: 357-363. doi:10.1192/bjp.bp.107.046375. PubMed: 18978312.18978312 | β | β | β |
In this knowledge base
| Title | Year | PMID |
|---|---|---|
| Genome-wide association study identifies a novel locus for cannabis dependence. | 2018 | 29112194 |
External
| Title | Authors | Journal | Year | Link |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Implementing Care for Cannabis and Other Drug Use in Adult Primary Care: Outcomes of a Cluster-Randomized Implementation Trial. | Matson TE et al. | β | 2026 | β |
| The role of cannabinoid ligands in neurodegenerative diseases: Emerging anti-inflammatory, immunomodulation and disease-modifying perspectives. | Baldasso GM et al. | β | 2026 | β |
| Absence of Evidence for Sustained Effects of Daily Cannabidiol Administration on Anandamide Plasma Concentration in Individuals with Cocaine Use Disorder: Exploratory Findings from a Randomized Controlled Trial. | Hebert FO et al. | β | 2025 | β |
| Cannabis effects on cardiovascular health: Current evidence, gaps in knowledge, and future research directions. | Mahmoud AK et al. | β | 2025 | β |
| Cannabis legalization: a call for the integration of main health and crime indicator domains towards comprehensive policy impact assessments. | Fischer B et al. | β | 2025 | β |
| Persistent Cannabis Use and Ocular Health in Midlife. | Cheyne K et al. | β | 2025 | β |
| Reduced Plasma IL-40 and Total IgA Levels in Patients with Substance Use Disorders: Indicators of Impaired Humoral Immune Response | Rahamon SK et al. | β | 2025 | β |
| Relative Risk of All-Cause Mortality Associated With Cannabis Use: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Cohort Studies. | Alimoradi Z et al. | β | 2025 | β |
| The impact of cannabinoids on reproductive function. | Cameron RS et al. | β | 2025 | β |
| Validity, reliability and clinical utility of ASSIST-Y in assessing risk of substance-related harm and dependence in Spanish male adolescents. | IbÑñez-MartΓnez N et al. | β | 2025 | β |
| Cannabinoids and the heart-aΒ psychiatrist's perspective. | Kramer J et al. | β | 2024 | β |
| Cannabis use disorder and adverse cardiovascular outcomes: A population-based retrospective cohort analysis of adults from Alberta, Canada. | Bahji A et al. | β | 2024 | β |
| Cognitive impairment in 'non-user' first-degree relatives of persons with cannabis dependence syndrome: A pilot, endophenotype study. | Das S et al. | β | 2024 | β |
| Evolutionary perspectives on substance and behavioural addictions: Distinct and shared pathways to understanding, prediction and prevention. | Hunt A et al. | β | 2024 | β |
| Examining the Popularity, Content, and Intersections With the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration's Definition of Recovery in a Nonclinical Online Cannabis Cessation Community: Infodemiology Study of Reddit Posts. | Thulin EJ et al. | β | 2024 | β |
| Global epidemiology of cannabis use disorders and its trend from 1990 to 2019: Benchmarking analysis of the global burden of disease study. | Shah K et al. | β | 2024 | β |
| Medical cannabis use in young adults with cancer: a self-reported survey study. | Halpern N et al. | β | 2024 | β |
| Mind it! A mindfulness-based group psychotherapy for substance use disorders in adolescent inpatients. | Legenbauer T et al. | β | 2024 | β |
| Prenatal cannabis use and the risk of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and autism spectrum disorder in offspring: A systematic review and meta-analysis. | Tadesse AW et al. | β | 2024 | β |
| The Risks for HIV and Sexually Transmitted Infections Among Men Who Have Sex with Men Who Engage in Chemsex in Low- and Middle-Income Countries: A Mixed Methods Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. | Eustaquio PC et al. | β | 2024 | β |
| Assessing the Iran Health System in Making Progress towards Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs): A Comparative Panel Data Analysis. | Najafpour Z et al. | β | 2023 | β |
| Association between cannabis use disorder symptom severity and probability of clinically-documented diagnosis and treatment in a primary care sample. | Matson TE et al. | β | 2023 | β |
| Association Between Markers of Vulnerability for Cannabis-Related Harms and Source of Supply: Secondary Analysis of a Representative Population Survey. | Drouin S et al. | β | 2023 | β |
| Benefits and risks of cannabinoids. | Freeman TP et al. | β | 2023 | β |
| Cannabinoids and synthetic cannabinoids as a cause of death: Trends and their healthcare implications. | Suriaga A et al. | β | 2023 | β |
| Cannabis dispensary staff approaches to counseling on potential contraindications to cannabis use: insights from a national self-report survey. | Slawek DE et al. | β | 2023 | β |
| Cannabis use, risk behaviours and harms in Brazil: A comprehensive review of available data indicators. | Daldegan-Bueno D et al. | β | 2023 | β |
| Dual-color miniscope imaging of microvessels and neuronal activity in the hippocampus CA1 region of freely moving mice following alcohol administration. | North KC et al. | β | 2023 | β |
| Exploring opportunities for drug repurposing and precision medicine in cannabis use disorder using genetics. | Greco LA et al. | β | 2023 | β |
| Sleep disturbance after cessation of cannabis administration inΒ mice. | Asano T et al. | β | 2023 | β |
| Transcriptome-wide association study by different approaches reveals candidate causal genes for cannabis use disorder. | Gao J et al. | β | 2023 | β |
| Ultrasound-guided medial branch of the superior laryngeal nerve block to reduce peri-operative opioids dosage and accelerate patient recovery. | Kang Q et al. | β | 2023 | β |
| 3-Year Follow-up of Lower Risk Cannabis Use Patterns: Evidence from a Longitudinal Survey. | Chen T et al. | β | 2022 | β |
| Atypical Antipsychotic Drugs in Dual Disorders: Current Evidence for Clinical Practice. | Martinotti G et al. | β | 2022 | β |
| Autism and associated disorders: cannabis as a potential therapy. | Babayeva M et al. | β | 2022 | β |
| Cannabinoids and Their Role in Chronic Pain Treatment: Current Concepts and a Comprehensive Review. | Shehata I et al. | β | 2022 | β |
| Cannabinoids for the treatment of cannabis use disorder: New avenues for reaching and helping youth? | RΓΈmer Thomsen K et al. | β | 2022 | β |
| Cannabis Use in Pregnancy and Downstream effects on maternal and infant health (CUPiD): a protocol for a birth cohort pilot study. | Ramlawi S et al. | β | 2022 | β |
| Clinical Approaches to Cannabis: A Narrative Review. | Slawek DE et al. | β | 2022 | β |
| Conceptualizing and considering Cannabis-Related "Harm-to-Others": The Role of Cannabis-Related Violence. | Daldegan-Bueno D et al. | β | 2022 | β |
| Global population attributable fraction of potentially modifiable risk factors for mental disorders: a meta-umbrella systematic review. | Dragioti E et al. | β | 2022 | β |
| How do substance use disorders compare to other psychiatric conditions on structural brain abnormalities? A cross-disorder meta-analytic comparison using the ENIGMA consortium findings. | Navarri X et al. | β | 2022 | β |
| Identifying risk-thresholds for the association between frequency of cannabis use and development of cannabis use disorder: A systematic review and meta-analysis. | Robinson T et al. | β | 2022 | β |
| Investigating associations between appetite-regulating hormones, aggression and craving in males with cannabis use disorder. | Kurt Tunagur EM et al. | β | 2022 | β |
| Klotho, BDNF, NGF, GDNF Levels and Related Factors in Withdrawal Period in Chronic Cannabinoid Users. | Yazici AB et al. | β | 2022 | β |
| Lower-Risk Cannabis Use Guidelines (LRCUG) for reducing health harms from non-medical cannabis use: A comprehensive evidence and recommendations update. | Fischer B et al. | β | 2022 | β |
| Multimodal MRI data fusion reveals distinct structural, functional and neurochemical correlates of heavy cannabis use. | Hirjak D et al. | β | 2022 | β |
| Portable Neuroimaging-Guided Noninvasive Brain Stimulation of the Cortico-Cerebello-Thalamo-Cortical Loop-Hypothesis and Theory in Cannabis Use Disorder. | Walia P et al. | β | 2022 | β |
| Prevalence of cannabis use among tobacco smokers: a systematic review protocol. | Skelton E et al. | β | 2022 | β |
| The prevalence and pattern of cannabis use among patients attending a methadone treatment clinic in Nairobi, Kenya. | Ngarachu EW et al. | β | 2022 | β |
| Assessing Changes in Symptoms of Depression and Anxiety During Four Weeks of Cannabis Abstinence Among Adolescents. | Cooke ME et al. | β | 2021 | β |
| A systematic review and meta-analysis of sex differences in cannabis use disorder amongst people with comorbid mental illness. | Kozak K et al. | β | 2021 | β |
| Cannabis use disorder and dissociation: A report from a prospective first-episode psychosis study. | Ricci V et al. | β | 2021 | β |
| Cannabis Use during Pregnancy and Risk of Adverse Birth Outcomes: A Longitudinal Cohort Study. | GabrhelΓk R et al. | β | 2021 | β |
| Diploma in primary care psychiatry: Do primary care doctors need training in cannabis use disorder module? | Pahuja E et al. | β | 2021 | β |
| Duration of Untreated Disorder and Cannabis Use: An Observational Study on a Cohort of Young Italian Patients Experiencing Psychotic Experiences and Dissociative Symptoms. | Ricci V et al. | β | 2021 | β |
| Exposure to Ξ9-tetrahydrocannabinol during rat pregnancy leads to impaired cardiac dysfunction in postnatal life. | Lee K et al. | β | 2021 | β |
| High-intensity cannabis use and hospitalization: a prospective cohort study of street-involved youth in Vancouver, Canada. | Reddon H et al. | β | 2021 | β |
| Inflammatory Biomarkers in Addictive Disorders. | Morcuende A et al. | β | 2021 | β |
| Intelligence quotient decline following frequent or dependent cannabis use in youth: a systematic review and meta-analysis of longitudinal studies. | Power E et al. | β | 2021 | β |
| Lack of Association Between Recent Cannabis Use and Advanced Liver Fibrosis Among HIV-positive Heavy Drinkers. | Fuster D et al. | β | 2021 | β |
| Legalization of recreational cannabis: Facilitators and barriers to switching from an illegal to a legal source. | Robertson K et al. | β | 2021 | β |
| Marijuana for glaucoma treatment: a recipe for disaster. | Daga FB et al. | β | 2021 | β |
| Metabolic Consequences of Gestational Cannabinoid Exposure. | Lee K et al. | β | 2021 | β |
| Pharmacotherapies for cannabis use disorder: A systematic review and network meta-analysis. | Bahji A et al. | β | 2021 | β |
| PROTOCOL: The effects of cannabis liberalization laws on health, safety, and socioeconomic outcomes: An evidence and gap map. | Sevigny EL et al. | β | 2021 | β |
| Risk and protective factors for cannabis, cocaine, and opioid use disorders: An umbrella review of meta-analyses of observational studies. | Solmi M et al. | β | 2021 | β |
| Societal issues and policy implications related to the use of cannabinoids, cannabis, and cannabis-based medicines for pain management. | Haroutounian S et al. | β | 2021 | β |
| The endocannabinoid system, cannabis, and cannabidiol: Implications in urology and men's health. | Capodice JL et al. | β | 2021 | β |
| Using Population Pharmacokinetic Modeling to Estimate Exposure to Ξ9-Tetrahydrocannabinol in an Observational Study of Cannabis Smokers in Colorado. | Sempio C et al. | β | 2021 | β |
| Acute effects of cannabinoids on addiction endophenotypes are moderated by genes encoding the CB1 receptor and FAAH enzyme. | Hindocha C et al. | β | 2020 | β |
| An exploratory study of cannabis use pattern and treatment seeking in patients attending an addiction treatment facility. | Sarkar S et al. | β | 2020 | β |
| Can a Smartphone App for Cannabis Cessation Gain a Broader User Group than Traditional Treatment Services? | Vederhus JK et al. | β | 2020 | β |
| Cannabis and Cognition: Connecting the Dots towards the Understanding of the Relationship. | Colizzi M et al. | β | 2020 | β |
| Cannabis health knowledge and risk perceptions among Canadian youth and young adults. | Leos-Toro C et al. | β | 2020 | β |
| Cannabis-induced basal-mid-left ventricular stress cardiomyopathy: A case report. | Meera SJ et al. | β | 2020 | β |
| Cannabis use, depression and suicidal ideation in adolescence: direction of associations in a population based cohort. | Bolanis D et al. | β | 2020 | β |
| Cannabis Use Disorder and Perioperative Outcomes in Major Elective Surgeries: A Retrospective Cohort Analysis. | Goel A et al. | β | 2020 | β |
| Cannabis use is associated with monocyte activation (sCD163) in patients admitted for alcohol use disorder treatment. | Fuster D et al. | β | 2020 | β |
| Changes in alcohol and cigarette consumption in response to medical and recreational cannabis legalization: Evidence from U.S. state tax receipt data. | Veligati S et al. | β | 2020 | β |
| Characterizing motivations for cannabis use in a cohort of people who use illicit drugs: A latent class analysis. | Lake S et al. | β | 2020 | β |
| Delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol increases striatal glutamate levels in healthy individuals: implications for psychosis. | Colizzi M et al. | β | 2020 | β |
| Editorial: Brain Mediators of the Cannabis-Prodromal Psychosis Connection. | Lange N | β | 2020 | β |
| Facing the option for the legalisation of cannabis use and supply in New Zealand: An overview of relevant evidence, concepts and considerations. | Fischer B et al. | β | 2020 | β |
| Molecular Mechanism and Cannabinoid Pharmacology. | Schurman LD et al. | β | 2020 | β |
| Prenatal Cannabinoid Exposure: Emerging Evidence of Physiological and Neuropsychiatric Abnormalities. | Nashed MG et al. | β | 2020 | β |
| Prevalence of Cannabis Withdrawal Symptoms Among People With Regular or Dependent Use of Cannabinoids: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis. | Bahji A et al. | β | 2020 | β |
| Prevalence of comorbid substance use in major depressive disorder in community and clinical settings, 1990-2019: Systematic review and meta-analysis. | Hunt GE et al. | β | 2020 | β |
| Safety Considerations in Cannabinoid-Based Medicine. | Gottschling S et al. | β | 2020 | β |
| Terpenoids, Cannabimimetic Ligands, beyond the <i>Cannabis</i> Plant. | GonΓ§alves ECD et al. | β | 2020 | β |
| The Genetics of Externalizing Problems. | Barr PB et al. | β | 2020 | β |
| The Lower-Risk Cannabis Use Guidelines (LRCUG): A ready-made targeted prevention tool for cannabis in New Zealand. | Fischer B et al. | β | 2020 | β |
| The Lower-Risk Cannabis Use Guidelines' (LRCUG) recommendations: How are Canadian cannabis users complying? | Lee CR et al. | β | 2020 | β |
| The role of negative emotional reactivity and neighborhood factors in predicting marijuana use during early adolescence. | Tache RM et al. | β | 2020 | β |
| Understanding the neurobiological effects of drug abuse: Lessons from zebrafish models. | MΓΌller TE et al. | β | 2020 | β |
| Unraveling the Intoxicating and Therapeutic Effects of Cannabis Ingredients on Psychosis and Cognition. | Colizzi M et al. | β | 2020 | β |
| Violence and Cannabis Use: A Focused Review of a Forgotten Aspect in the Era of Liberalizing Cannabis. | Dellazizzo L et al. | β | 2020 | β |
| Alteration to hippocampal volume and shape confined to cannabis dependence: a multi-site study. | Chye Y et al. | β | 2019 | β |
| An update on cannabis use disorder with comment on the impact of policy related to therapeutic and recreational cannabis use. | Budney AJ et al. | β | 2019 | β |
| A Rare Case of Cannabis-induced Acute Pancreatitis. | Ghazaleh S et al. | β | 2019 | β |
| Assessing the public health impact of cannabis legalization in Canada: core outcome indicators towards an 'index' for monitoring and evaluation. | Fischer B et al. | β | 2019 | β |
| Burden of Comorbidities in Hospitalizations for Cannabis Use-associated Intractable Vomiting during Post-legalization Period. | Madireddy S et al. | β | 2019 | β |
| Cannabinoid Hyperemesis Syndrome: Reports of Fatal Cases. | Nourbakhsh M et al. | β | 2019 | β |
| Cannabis Consumption Patterns Explain the East-West Gradient in Canadian Neural Tube Defect Incidence: An Ecological Study. | Reece AS et al. | β | 2019 | β |
| Cannabis use and suicide attempts among 86,254 adolescents aged 12-15 years from 21 low- and middle-income countries. | Carvalho AF et al. | β | 2019 | β |
| Effects of increasing cannabis potency on adolescent health. | Wilson J et al. | β | 2019 | β |
| International Perspectives on the Implications of Cannabis Legalization: A Systematic Review & Thematic Analysis. | Bahji A et al. | β | 2019 | β |
| Introducing the evidence-based population health tool of the Lower-Risk Cannabis Use Guidelines to Brazil. | Fischer B et al. | β | 2019 | β |
| Marijuana Use in Pregnancy: An Updated Look at Marijuana Use and Its Impact on Pregnancy. | Stickrath E | β | 2019 | β |
| Potential harms from legalization of recreational cannabis use in Canada. | Windle SB et al. | β | 2019 | β |
| The other side of the coin. | Marques AC et al. | β | 2019 | β |
| Tolerance to WIN55,212-2 is delayed in desensitization-resistant S426A/S430A mice. | Nealon CM et al. | β | 2019 | β |
| Trends in Publications on Medical Cannabis from the Year 2000. | Treister-Goltzman Y et al. | β | 2019 | β |
| Associations between personality disorders and cannabis use and cannabis use disorder: a population-based twin study. | Gillespie NA et al. | β | 2018 | β |
| Cannabis use and the development of tolerance: a systematic review of human evidence. | Colizzi M et al. | β | 2018 | β |
| CANNABIS USE INCREASES RISK FOR REVISION AFTER TOTAL KNEE ARTHROPLASTY. | Law TY et al. | β | 2018 | β |
| Cannabis Use, Lung Cancer, and Related Issues. | Jett J et al. | β | 2018 | β |
| Cannabis Use: Neurobiological, Behavioral, and Sex/Gender Considerations. | Nia AB et al. | β | 2018 | β |
| Clinical issues in cannabis use. | Bonomo Y et al. | β | 2018 | β |
| Endocannabinoid-related compounds in gastrointestinal diseases. | Pesce M et al. | β | 2018 | β |
| Endocannabinoids in the treatment of gasytrointestinal inflammation and symptoms. | Pesce M et al. | β | 2018 | β |
| Genome-wide association study identifies a novel locus for cannabis dependence. | Agrawal A et al. | β | 2018 | β |
| Nineteen and Up study (19Up): understanding pathways to mental health disorders in young Australian twins. | Couvy-Duchesne B et al. | β | 2018 | β |
| Prevalence of Cannabis Use Disorder and Associated Factors among Cannabis Young Adult Users at Shashemene Town, Oromia Region, Ethiopia, 2016. | Tullu M et al. | β | 2018 | β |
| The Current State of Pharmacological Treatments for Cannabis Use Disorder and Withdrawal. | Brezing CA et al. | β | 2018 | β |
| The Effects of Social Presence on Adherence-Focused Guidance in Problematic Cannabis Users: Protocol for the CANreduce 2.0 Randomized Controlled Trial. | Amann M et al. | β | 2018 | β |
| The future of the international drug control system and national drug prohibitions. | Hall W | β | 2018 | β |
| Treatment effectiveness of a mindfulness-based inpatient group psychotherapy in adolescent substance use disorder - study protocol for a randomized controlled trial. | Baldus C et al. | β | 2018 | β |
| A Mobile Phone-Based Life Skills Training Program for Substance Use Prevention Among Adolescents: Pre-Post Study on the Acceptance and Potential Effectiveness of the Program, Ready4life. | Haug S et al. | β | 2017 | β |
| Building smart cannabis policy from the science up. | Weiss SRB et al. | β | 2017 | β |
| Cannabidiol in medical marijuana: Research vistas and potential opportunities. | Rong C et al. | β | 2017 | β |
| Cannabis as Secondary Drug Is Not Associated With a Greater Risk of Death in Patients With Opiate, Cocaine, or Alcohol Dependence. | Fuster D et al. | β | 2017 | β |
| Cannabis Epidemiology: A Selective Review. | Anthony JC et al. | β | 2017 | β |
| Cannabis-related hippocampal volumetric abnormalities specific to subregions in dependent users. | Chye Y et al. | β | 2017 | β |
| DSM-5 cannabis use disorder, substance use and DSM-5 specific substance-use disorders: Evaluating comorbidity in a population-based sample. | Hayley AC et al. | β | 2017 | β |
| Evidence for the Risks and Consequences of Adolescent Cannabis Exposure. | Levine A et al. | β | 2017 | β |
| Lower-Risk Cannabis Use Guidelines: A Comprehensive Update of Evidence and Recommendations. | Fischer B et al. | β | 2017 | β |
| Marijuana use and inpatient outcomes among hospitalized patients: analysis of the nationwide inpatient sample database. | Vin-Raviv N et al. | β | 2017 | β |
| No significant effect of cannabis use on the count and percentage of circulating CD4 T-cells in HIV-HCV co-infected patients (ANRS CO13-HEPAVIH French cohort). | Marcellin F et al. | β | 2017 | β |
| Patterns and factors of problematic marijuana use in the Canadian population: Evidence from three cross-sectional surveys. | Bonner WIA et al. | β | 2017 | β |
| Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) impairs encoding but not retrieval of verbal information. | Ranganathan M et al. | β | 2017 | β |
| The cannabis withdrawal syndrome: current insights. | Bonnet U et al. | β | 2017 | β |
| A literature review and meta-analyses of cannabis use and suicidality. | Borges G et al. | β | 2016 | β |
| A longitudinal examination of the relationship between cannabis use and cognitive function in mid-life adults. | McKetin R et al. | β | 2016 | β |
| A review of vulnerability and risks for schizophrenia: Beyond the two hit hypothesis. | Davis J et al. | β | 2016 | β |
| Attentional dysfunction in abstinent long-term cannabis users with and without schizophrenia. | Rentzsch J et al. | β | 2016 | β |
| Cannabis Abuse Is Increasing and Associated with Increased Emergency Department Utilization in Gastroenterology Patients. | Gubatan J et al. | β | 2016 | β |
| Cannabis and Psychosis: a Critical Overview of the Relationship. | Ksir C et al. | β | 2016 | β |
| Cannabis, Psychosis, and Mortality: A Cohort Study of 50,373 Swedish Men. | Manrique-Garcia E et al. | β | 2016 | β |
| Correction: The Global Epidemiology and Contribution of Cannabis Use and Dependence to the Global Burden of Disease: Results from the GBD 2010 Study. | PLOS ONE Staff | β | 2016 | β |
| Crude estimates of cannabis-attributable mortality and morbidity in Canada-implications for public health focused intervention priorities. | Fischer B et al. | β | 2016 | β |
| Heavy cannabis users at elevated risk of stroke: evidence from a general population survey. | Hemachandra D et al. | β | 2016 | β |
| Readiness to change is a predictor of reduced substance use involvement: findings from a randomized controlled trial of patients attending South African emergency departments. | Myers B et al. | β | 2016 | β |
| The burden of disease attributable to cannabis use in Canada in 2012. | Imtiaz S et al. | β | 2016 | β |
| The increasing global health priority of substance use in young people. | Degenhardt L et al. | β | 2016 | β |
| A clinical comparison of schizophrenia with and without pre-onset cannabis use disorder: a retrospective cohort study using categorical and dimensional approaches. | Sarrazin S et al. | β | 2015 | β |
| A heavy burden on young minds: the global burden of mental and substance use disorders in children and youth. | Erskine HE et al. | β | 2015 | β |
| Cannabinoid replacement therapy (CRT): Nabiximols (Sativex) as a novel treatment for cannabis withdrawal. | Allsop DJ et al. | β | 2015 | β |
| Does cannabis affect dopaminergic signaling in the human brain? A systematic review of evidence to date. | Sami MB et al. | β | 2015 | β |
| Early Cannabis Use, Polygenic Risk Score for Schizophrenia and Brain Maturation in Adolescence. | French L et al. | β | 2015 | β |
| Exposure of Adolescent Mice to Delta-9-Tetrahydrocannabinol Induces Long-Lasting Modulation of Pro- and Anti-Inflammatory Cytokines in Hypothalamus and Hippocampus Similar to that Observed for Peripheral Macrophages. | Moretti S et al. | β | 2015 | β |
| Global, regional, and national incidence, prevalence, and years lived with disability for 301 acute and chronic diseases and injuries in 188 countries, 1990-2013: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2013. | Global Burden of Disease Study 2013 Collaborators | β | 2015 | β |
| Global statistics on addictive behaviours: 2014 status report. | Gowing LR et al. | β | 2015 | β |
| Medical marijuana programs - Why might they matter for public health and why should we better understand their impacts? | Fischer B et al. | β | 2015 | β |
| Phytocannabinoids and epilepsy. | dos Santos RG et al. | β | 2015 | β |
| Prevalence of Marijuana Use among University Students in Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru. | Hynes M et al. | β | 2015 | β |
| Recruitment, Follow-Up and Characteristics of HIV Infected Adults who Use Illicit Drugs in Southern Africa. | Baum MK et al. | β | 2015 | β |
| Reliability and validity of the Marijuana Motives Measure among young adult frequent cannabis users and associations with cannabis dependence. | Benschop A et al. | β | 2015 | β |
| The effects of prenatal cannabis exposure on fetal development and pregnancy outcomes: a protocol. | Gunn JK et al. | β | 2015 | β |
| The global burden of mental, neurological and substance use disorders: an analysis from the Global Burden of Disease Study 2010. | Whiteford HA et al. | β | 2015 | β |
| Three-Year Course of Cannabis Dependence and Prediction of Persistence. | van der Pol P et al. | β | 2015 | β |
| A pilot study of an online universal school-based intervention to prevent alcohol and cannabis use in the UK. | Newton NC et al. | β | 2014 | β |
| A positive association between anxiety disorders and cannabis use or cannabis use disorders in the general population--a meta-analysis of 31 studies. | Kedzior KK et al. | β | 2014 | β |
| Cannabis use and first manic episode. | Bally N et al. | β | 2014 | β |
| Changes in cigarette and alcohol use during cannabis abstinence. | Allsop DJ et al. | β | 2014 | β |
| Robin Room and cannabis policy: dangerous comparisons. | Hall W | β | 2014 | β |
| Substance use in older HIV-infected patients. | Edelman EJ et al. | β | 2014 | β |
| The Global Burden of Disease projects: what have we learned about illicit drug use and dependence and their contribution to the global burden of disease? | Degenhardt L et al. | β | 2014 | β |