Importantly, there is evidence that the association between early parenting and later alcohol use and externalizing problems is longitudinally mediated by executive function, providing support for a process model in which positive parenting and parent–child closeness promote children’s efficient executive functions and self-regulation which in turn reduce risky drinking and other externalizing behaviors (Puhlmann et al., 2021; Sosic-Vasic et al., 2017). Positive parenting also has longitudinal effects on the structural development of the brain during adolescence (e.g., Lee & Schafer, 2021; Whittle et al., 2014). For example, higher levels of parental sensitivity have been associated with larger total brain and gray matter volume (Kok et al., 2015). Therefore, in low-/no-risk individuals, parent–child closeness and positive parenting may contribute to efficient executive functioning, better self-regulation, and low alcohol problems. However, among high-risk individuals that manifest low P3 and FT due to inefficient executive functioning, poor self-regulation, and heightened vulnerability to alcohol problems, parent–child closeness may contribute to resilience and may amend the neurodevelopmental lag.
