These findings must be interpreted in the context of study strengths and limitations. The primary limitation in this study is the small sample size and relatively narrow range of smoking heaviness (e.g. no “chippers”; Shiffman & Paty, 2006). The sample size limitation is partially mitigated by the intensive nature of the assessment battery and the high compliance rates which resulted in over 309 complete observations. The study is limited by the fact that participants were not actively trying to quit smoking. Biological verification of abstinence, via CO, strengthens the inferences drawn from this study as only individuals who successfully abstained where included in the analyses. The lack of a non-abstinence control condition is an additional limitation as it is possible that diurnal rhythms partially account for the observed changes in affective dimensions, particularly in terms of NA and PA which do not explicitly assess nicotine-related effects. The potential for diurnal rhythms to fully account for the observed effects involving craving and withdrawal is, in our opinion, modest as our findings are largely consistent with prior studies examining short term abstinence
