Our Hypothesis 1, which tested the relative importance of positive and negative reinforcement associated with alcohol consumption, was supported. Our results indicated that positive reinforcement, but not negative reinforcement, was associated with frequency of alcohol consumption among individuals without AD. Results indicated that both positive and negative reinforcement were uniquely associated with higher risk of having an AD diagnosis, with the association being slightly stronger for negative reinforcement than for positive reinforcement. Thus, our findings did not provide clear support for Hypothesis 2 that negative reinforcement would be more strongly associated with AD than positive reinforcement. This finding is consistent with the impulsivity-compulsivity cycle of motivation of drug use proposed in the multistage model of drug addiction (Koob & Volkow, 2010). That is, while positive reinforcement plays a more important role in influencing substance involvement during earlier stages of addiction, both positive and negative reinforcement are important in influencing drug use in later stages of addiction. Our findings are also in line with prior studies that showed associations between positive reinforcement and moderate drinking and associations between negative reinforcement and
