Finally, Frequency Residual was negatively associated with alcohol dependence (Figure 2). We also found positive genetic correlations between Frequency Residual and socioeconomic outcomes, including educational attainment, household income, and intelligence. Furthermore, we observed consistently negative genetic correlations between Frequency Residual and other psychiatric and substance use disorders, such as major depressive disorder and cannabis use disorder. This result suggests that many of the puzzling genetic correlations previously reported for alcohol consumption were driven by variance related to socially-stratified differences in behavior rather than variance related to the alcohol phenotypes of clinical interest.
