In addition to the examination of the more direct observable relationships among these behaviors, there is also active research in the possible roles of familial and environmental factorsin the etiology of childhood behavioral problems. For example, substance use problems and disorder in parents, which have been associated with ADHD (e.g., Knopik et al., 2005), can result in a variety of detrimental rearing environments including, but not limited to, poor parenting, lack of parental discipline, and increased family conflict (e.g. Eliason & Skinstad, 1995; Ohannessian et al., 2004), all of which can contribute to child mis-behavior. Additional familial/environmental factors include pre- and perinatal risk factors such as low birth weight, prenatal substance exposure and secondary hand smoke exposure. Very low and low birth weight has been associated with ADHD symptoms in childhood (Botting et al., 1997; Breslau and Chilcoat, 2000; Mick et al., 2002b). Prenatal exposure to alcohol has been reported to be predictive of ADHD in childhood (Knopik et al., 2005; Streissguth et al., 1994; Coles et al., 1997) as well as earlier onset (e.g., Russell, 1991) and increased risk
