a household with family dysfunction. Thus, it is plausible that children receive their genotypes as well as their environmental exposure from the parents in the form of family dysfunction and related social cues to manage the environment through interpersonal interactions (passive rGE). Additionally, gender differences in processing the home environment may explain the gender differences for CD symptoms. This may also explain why female CD is more likely to result from disrupted relationships with carers or peers and females are more likely to engage in interpersonal violence against family members or intimate partners (Moffitt et al. 2001a; Ehrensaft, 2005). The results from this study encourage family-centered prevention efforts interested in altering environmental exposure to childhood adversity and treating parental ASP, because no genotypic group is completely protected from the effects of household difficulty.
