0.11 for African Americans for wave III and Cohen’s d = −0.03 for Caucasians and 0.08 for African Americans for wave IV). Thus, the results presented in the current study are not adjusted for college matriculation; however, it is unlikely that this variable significantly alters the relationship between parenting style and HED trajectories. Fourth, access to alcohol was assessed with a single question, “Is alcohol easily available to you in your home?” We consider this question a limitation of our study as there may be variation in the way adolescents interpreted this question depending upon parenting style and other socialization factors. Fifth, although our results are from a prospective longitudinal study, determining causation was beyond the scope of this study. To determine causal links, we would need a randomized controlled trial that would allow us to evaluate methods for changing parenting practices and assess adolescents’ changes in HED over time. Sixth, although our analyses included a number of covariates, many confounding variables (measured and unmeasured) were not assessed in this study. Seventh, we did not examine the mechanisms that might explain the relationship between parenting styles and HED trajectories. Future studies should assess potential mediators (e.g., affiliation with deviant peers)
