We identified 16 published studies that investigated how inferred genotype interacts with environmental constraints and adversity to influence variation in alcohol-related phenotypes (Table 1). In order to provide a clear view of the longitudinal and cumulative nature of risk-resilience factors for AUDs, we start with articles describing moderating factors in adolescence such as peer pressure, parental influences, and age at first drink and move to moderators in adulthood. It is important to note that many of the “environmental” measures used in alcohol-related studies of GxE are genetically influenced (e.g., age at drinking onset; Prescott & Kendler, 1999). We consider the implications of this important methodological issue in a later section.
