We included adolescents’ age, gender (1 = male, 0 = female), and ethnicity (1 = European American, 0 = African American) as covariates given prior evidence that they are related to adolescent alcohol use and conduct problems (Johnston et al., 2015). Because family structure may impact parental influences and family processes (Brown & Rinelli, 2010), we also considered family structure as a covariate in this study. Family structure was coded as 1 if adolescents indicated that they lived with both biological mother and biological father; all other family living arrangements (e.g., one parent, step-parent) were coded as 0. Given that family socioeconomic status has been associated with adolescent alcohol use and conduct problems and may confound the effect of ethnicity (Piotrowska et al., 2015; Goodman & Huang, 2002), we included parental education, indexing family socioeconomic status, as a covariate in this study. Parents reported their highest level of education as part of SSAGA, and scores were converted to the number of years typically required to complete that level of education. Parental education was calculated as the average of maternal and
