contributing to ad libitum smoking behavior has been mixed, with some EMA studies reporting a positive association with cigarette craving and smoking (Dunbar et al., 2010; Shiffman et al., 2014; Shiffman & Paty, 2006) and others finding no relationship (Shiffman et al., 2002; Shiffman & Waters, 2004). Conversely, increases in PA have been associated with decreased risk for smoking lapse, suggesting a protective role of PA in early nicotine abstinence (Ferguson, Shiffman, & Gwaltney, 2006). One factor that has undoubtedly contributed to the poor characterization of PA’s role in smoking behavior and abstinence is that many EMA studies examining affect as a predictor of craving or smoking behavior subscribed to the circumplex model of emotion, which suggests that NA and PA are not independent factors of emotion and are, in fact, bipolar ends of the same affective dimension (Russell, 1980; Russell & Carroll, 1999; Shiffman, 2013). Consistent with this model, many studies have only examined NA as a predictor or have used a single factor to account for both NA and PA. However, a sizeable body of evidence suggests that PA and NA are indeed independent dimensions with distinct underlying neurological and psychological constructs, and an individual can concurrently experience,
