Within the nonverbal domain, limited research has addressed visual-spatial memory, and current data reveal inconsistent results. One study described performance on a virtual Morris water maze task that is sensitive to hippocampal damage. Children and adolescents with histories of prenatal alcohol exposure exhibited poorer performance on the hidden and probe trials but not cued-navigation trials, suggesting that these place-learning deficits were not attributable to visual-motor or motivation deficits (Hamilton, Kodituwakku, Sutherland, & Savage, 2003). In addition, these findings were consistent with those found in the animal literature (e.g., Johnson & Goodlett, 2002). A second study used the Memory for 16 Objects test, a task also sensitive to hippocampal damage. In this study, children with FAS remembered the same average number of objects on immediate recall as control subjects but fewer objects in delayed recall (Uecker & Nadel, 1996). In a subsequent study with the same subjects, deficits were noted in spatial but not object recall (Uecker & Nadel, 1998). Because retention was not addressed directly in either of these studies, it is unclear whether the nature of the deficits was
