scarce work examining protective factors that can potentially mitigate such risk and contribute to resilience. (2) Despite the established importance of positive parenting on offspring behavior and brain development, it is unknown how positive parenting is associated with endophenotypes like P3 amplitude and FT among offspring at high risk for AUD (3) The differential associations of closeness with mother and father with offspring P3 amplitude, FT, and risky drinking behaviors are less known. Most research studies examining parenting factors tend to focus only on mothers, with only a few studies examining the role played by fathers as well. (4) Lastly, the variability by offspring sex in associations of parent–child closeness with neural endophenotypes and risky drinking behaviors is less known. Important offspring sex differences in parenting and parent–child relationships have been previously observed (e.g., Starrels, 2016). For example, mothers have been seen to be equally involved with sons and daughters, whereas fathers are more involved with their sons, and communicate differently with sons (e.g., more achievement-related language) and daughters (e.g., more emotion-related language) (Mascaro et al., 2017; Raley & Bianchi, 2006). Thus, it is important to consider both parent and offspring sex.
