although positive parenting has been shown to be an important contributing factor in offspring-related outcomes, it is noteworthy that substantial evidence also shows that a child’s temperament and behavior can significantly alter parenting, parental warmth, and parent–child relationships (Lansford et al., 2018). Influences between parent and child are bi-directional, and key constructs such as parent–child closeness are likely the product of both sources. Indeed, substantial evidence shows that an adolescent’s personality can affect relationship with parents and that child effects more than parent effects, may characterize how parental warmth and control are related to child externalizing and internalizing behaviors (South et al., 2008). Therefore, we included Offspring impulsiveness as a covariate indexing offspring’s personality characteristic and also because impulsiveness symptoms are core to the developmental externalizing spectrum (Martel et al., 2017). Participant’s impulsiveness was measured using the Barratt Impulsiveness Scale (BIS) (Patton et al., 1995). In the COGA Prospective study, the BIS was administered once to participants aged 16 and older. Participants are instructed to indicate how each statement (e.g., “I plan tasks carefully”) applies to them on a 4-point scale. Response options ranged from 1 (rarely/never) to 4 (almost always/always). Each participant’s total score on the BIS was used.
