We included offspring Sex (0 = male, 1 = female), self-reported Race/ethnicity (1 = White, 2 = Black, 3 = Other), and Age as covariates given prior evidence that they are related to adolescent alcohol use and related problems (Banks et al., 2020). Because family socioeconomic status has been associated with alcohol and other externalizing disorders (Hammond et al., 2021; Piotrowska et al., 2015), we also included parental education and income, indexing family socioeconomic status, as covariates in this study. Data were drawn from parents’ SSAGA interviews which predated offspring interviews. Parents reported their highest level of education as part of the SSAGA, in response to the question “What is the highest grade in school you completed?” Scores were converted to the number of years typically required to complete that level of education and ranged from 0 (no school) to 17 (graduate school). For parents who completed multiple SSAGA interviews, the maximum value was used. Parental education was calculated as the average of maternal and paternal education. In cases where information was only available for one parent, the available score
