other dimensions of parent–child relationships. However, intuitively, the concept of closeness with parents may represent a comprehensive construct encompassing the cumulative influences of other parenting aspects (e.g., discipline and involvement)—a child may feel closer to a parent when a parent is responsive, involved, and affectionate (King et al., 2018). Second, only offspring self-reports of closeness with mother and father were included in the current work. Perhaps the inclusion of parental self-reports as well may provide a more holistic perspective of parent–child closeness. Nonetheless, there is substantial evidence that adolescents’ perceptions of parenting are a valid and important source of information which may have implications for offspring adjustment beyond parents’ self-reports (Hannigan et al., 2017). Third, during adolescence, the influence of closeness with parents may be less important compared to the influence of associating with deviant peers and delinquent behavior, which has been reported as more impactful during those ages (Berge et al., 2016). These factors were not examined in this study. Fourth, offspring temperament/personality can potentially moderate the influence of parenting behaviors and parent–child relationship (Belsky & Pluess, 2009), which may variably impact neurodevelopment as well as alcohol- and substance-related outcomes in later life. Somewhat mitigating this concern, this study
