Medical marijuana laws in 50 states: investigating the relationship between state legalization of medical marijuana and marijuana use, abuse and dependence.
- Authors
- CerdΓ‘, Magdalena; Wall, Melanie; Keyes, Katherine M; Galea, Sandro; Hasin, Deborah
- Year
- 2012
- Journal
- Drug and alcohol dependence
- PMID
- 22099393
- DOI
- 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2011.06.011
- PMCID
- PMC3251168
BACKGROUND: Marijuana is the most frequently used illicit substance in the United States. Little is known of the role that macro-level factors, including community norms and laws related to substance use, play in determining marijuana use, abuse and dependence. We tested the relationship between state-level legalization of medical marijuana and marijuana use, abuse, and dependence. METHODS: We used the second wave of the National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions (NESARC), a national survey of adults aged 18+ (n=34,653). Selected analyses were replicated using the National Survey on Drug Use and Health (NSDUH), a yearly survey of βΌ68,000 individuals aged 12+. We measured past-year cannabis use and DSM-IV abuse/dependence. RESULTS: In NESARC, residents of states with medical marijuana laws had higher odds of marijuana use (OR: 1.92; 95% CI: 1.49-2.47) and marijuana abuse/dependence (OR: 1.81; 95% CI: 1.22-2.67) than residents of states without such laws. Marijuana abuse/dependence was not more prevalent among marijuana users in these states (OR: 1.03; 95% CI: 0.67-1.60), suggesting that the higher risk for marijuana abuse/dependence in these states was accounted for by higher rates of use. In NSDUH, states that legalized medical marijuana also had higher rates of marijuana use. CONCLUSIONS: States that legalized medical marijuana had higher rates of marijuana use. Future research needs to examine whether the association is causal, or is due to an underlying common cause, such as community norms supportive of the legalization of medical marijuana and of marijuana use.
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| Medical Marijuana Legalization and Marijuana Use Among Youth in Oregon. | Paschall MJ et al. | β | 2017 | β |
| Patterns and factors of problematic marijuana use in the Canadian population: Evidence from three cross-sectional surveys. | Bonner WIA et al. | β | 2017 | β |
| Pregnant Women's Current and Intended Cannabis Use in Relation to Their Views Toward Legalization and Knowledge of Potential Harm. | Mark K et al. | β | 2017 | β |
| Prevalence and correlates of marijuana use among HIV-seropositive and seronegative men in the Multicenter AIDS Cohort Study (MACS), 1984-2013. | Okafor CN et al. | β | 2017 | β |
| Prevalence and correlates of treatment utilization among adults with cannabis use disorder in the United States. | Wu LT et al. | β | 2017 | β |
| Prevalence and motivations for kratom use in a sample of substance users enrolled in a residential treatment program. | Smith KE et al. | β | 2017 | β |
| Prevalence, reasons, perceived effects, and correlates of medical marijuana use: A review. | Park JY et al. | β | 2017 | β |
| Pros and Cons of Medical Cannabis use by People with Chronic Brain Disorders. | Suryadevara U et al. | β | 2017 | β |
| Race/ethnicity and marijuana use in the United States: Diminishing differences in the prevalence of use, 2006-2015. | Keyes KM et al. | β | 2017 | β |
| Recent legalization of cannabis use: effects on sleep, health, and workplace safety. | Bowles NP et al. | β | 2017 | β |
| Sex Differences in Cannabis Use Disorder Diagnosis Involved Hospitalizations in the United States. | Zhu H et al. | β | 2017 | β |
| State and National Contexts in Evaluating Cannabis Laws: A Case Study of Washington State. | Cambron C et al. | β | 2017 | β |
| Structural barriers in access to medical marijuana in the USA-a systematic review protocol. | Valencia CI et al. | β | 2017 | β |
| Support for Marijuana Legalization and Predictors of Intentions to Use Marijuana More Often in Response to Legalization Among U.S. Young Adults. | Cohn AM et al. | β | 2017 | β |
| The impact of cannabis and cannabinoids for medical conditions on health-related quality of life: A systematic review and meta-analysis. | Goldenberg M et al. | β | 2017 | β |
| The impact of cannabis use on patients enrolled in opioid agonist therapy in Ontario, Canada. | Franklyn AM et al. | β | 2017 | β |
| The Impact of Legalizing and Regulating Weed: Issues with Study Design and Emerging Findings in the USA. | Hunt PE et al. | β | 2017 | β |
| The Increasing Use of Cannabis Among Older Americans: A Public Health Crisis or Viable Policy Alternative? | Kaskie B et al. | β | 2017 | β |
| Theory and methods in comparative drug and alcohol policy research: Response to a review of the literature. | Burris S | β | 2017 | β |
| The widening gender gap in marijuana use prevalence in the U.S. during a period of economic change, 2002-2014. | Carliner H et al. | β | 2017 | β |
| Trends of Cannabis Use Disorder in the Inpatient: 2002 to 2011. | Charilaou P et al. | β | 2017 | β |
| US Adult Illicit Cannabis Use, Cannabis Use Disorder, and Medical Marijuana Laws: 1991-1992 to 2012-2013. | Hasin DS et al. | β | 2017 | β |
| Vaping Synthetic Cannabinoids: A Novel Preclinical Model of E-Cigarette Use in Mice. | Lefever TW et al. | β | 2017 | β |
| A critique of cannabis legalization proposals in Canada. | Kalant H | β | 2016 | β |
| Cannabis Abuse Is Increasing and Associated with Increased Emergency Department Utilization in Gastroenterology Patients. | Gubatan J et al. | β | 2016 | β |
| Cannabis and adolescents: Exploring the substance misuse treatment provider experience in a climate of legalization. | Sobesky M et al. | β | 2016 | β |
| Cannabis in Pain Treatment: Clinical and Research Considerations. | Savage SR et al. | β | 2016 | β |
| Cannabis use and cannabis use disorders. | Lynskey M et al. | β | 2016 | β |
| Capturing Heterogeneity in Medical Marijuana Policies: A Taxonomy of Regulatory Regimes Across the United States. | Chapman SA et al. | β | 2016 | β |
| Clinical and Public Health Considerations in Urine Drug Testing to Identify and Treat Substance Use. | Barthwell AG | β | 2016 | β |
| Colorado Cannabis Legalization and Its Effect on Emergency Care. | Kim HS et al. | β | 2016 | β |
| Commentary: Adolescent Marijuana Use and Mental Health Amidst a Changing Legal Climate. | Yurasek AM et al. | β | 2016 | β |
| Comparative policy analysis for alcohol and drugs: Current state of the field. | Ritter A et al. | β | 2016 | β |
| Comparing adults who use cannabis medically with those who use recreationally: Results from a national sample. | Lin LA et al. | β | 2016 | β |
| Demographic and clinical characteristics associated with comorbid cannabis use disorders (CUDs) in hospitalized patients with bipolar I disorder. | Weinstock LM et al. | β | 2016 | β |
| Early Versus Late Onset of Cannabis Use: Differences in Striatal Response to Cannabis Cues. | Wetherill RR et al. | β | 2016 | β |
| Evaluating the public health impacts of legalizing recreational cannabis use in the United States. | Hall W et al. | β | 2016 | β |
| Examination of the Divergence in Trends for Adolescent Marijuana Use and Marijuana-Specific Risk Factors in Washington State. | Fleming CB et al. | β | 2016 | β |
| Marijuana Legalization and Parents' Attitudes, Use, and Parenting in Washington State. | Kosterman R et al. | β | 2016 | β |
| Marijuana Legalization: Impact on Physicians and Public Health. | Wilkinson ST et al. | β | 2016 | β |
| Marijuana: Views on Its Medical Use Recorded at the Slovak Social Network. | Kolena B et al. | β | 2016 | β |
| Medical Marijuana Laws Reduce Prescription Medication Use In Medicare Part D. | Bradford AC et al. | β | 2016 | β |
| Medical marijuana legalization and cigarette and marijuana co-use in adolescents and adults. | Wang JB et al. | β | 2016 | β |
| Medical Marijuana Legalization and Co-use in Adult Cigarette Smokers. | Wang JB et al. | β | 2016 | β |
| Nonmedical prescription pain reliever and alcohol consumption among cannabis users. | Novak SP et al. | β | 2016 | β |
| Older-adult marijuana users and ex-users: Comparisons of sociodemographic characteristics and mental and substance use disorders. | Choi NG et al. | β | 2016 | β |
| Older, Less Regulated Medical Marijuana Programs Have Much Greater Enrollment Rates Than Newer 'Medicalized' Programs. | Williams AR et al. | β | 2016 | β |
| Prevalence and correlates of a lifetime cannabis use disorder among pregnant former tobacco smokers. | Emery RL et al. | β | 2016 | β |
| Prevalence and Correlates of DSM-5 Cannabis Use Disorder, 2012-2013: Findings from the National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions-III. | Hasin DS et al. | β | 2016 | β |
| Prevalence of marijuana and other substance use before and after Washington State's change from legal medical marijuana to legal medical and nonmedical marijuana: Cohort comparisons in a sample of adolescents. | Mason WA et al. | β | 2016 | β |
| Smoking, vaping, eating: Is legalization impacting the way people use cannabis? | Borodovsky JT et al. | β | 2016 | β |
| State-level medical marijuana laws, marijuana use and perceived availability of marijuana among the general U.S. population. | Martins SS et al. | β | 2016 | β |
| Tasty THC: Promises and Challenges of Cannabis Edibles. | Barrus DG et al. | β | 2016 | β |
| The effect of medical cannabis laws on juvenile cannabis use. | Stolzenberg L et al. | β | 2016 | β |
| The Impact of Marijuana Legalization on Adolescent Use, Consequences, and Perceived Risk. | Estoup AC et al. | β | 2016 | β |
| The Importance of Context: Neighborhood Drinking Norms and Heavy Drinking Among HIV Patients. | Elliott JC et al. | β | 2016 | β |
| The increasing global health priority of substance use in young people. | Degenhardt L et al. | β | 2016 | β |
| Trends in registered medical marijuana participation across 13 US states and District of Columbia. | Fairman BJ | β | 2016 | β |
| A reexamination of medical marijuana policies in relation to suicide risk. | Grucza RA et al. | β | 2015 | β |
| A socio-cultural view of trends in drug use indicators. | Golub A et al. | β | 2015 | β |
| Assessing the effects of medical marijuana laws on marijuana use: the devil is in the details. | Pacula RL et al. | β | 2015 | β |
| Assessing the public health impacts of legalizing recreational cannabis use in the USA. | Hall W et al. | β | 2015 | β |
| Cannabis Liberalization and Adolescent Cannabis Use: A Cross-National Study in 38 Countries. | Shi Y et al. | β | 2015 | β |
| Cannabis Mobile Apps: A Content Analysis. | Ramo DE et al. | β | 2015 | β |
| Concomitant cannabis abuse/dependence in patients treated with opioids for non-cancer pain. | Hefner K et al. | β | 2015 | β |
| Discrepant Patterns of Heavy Drinking, Marijuana Use, and Smoking and Intimate Partner Violence: Results From the California Community Health Study of Couples. | Cunradi CB et al. | β | 2015 | β |
| Distance to Cannabis Shops and Age of Onset of Cannabis Use. | Palali A et al. | β | 2015 | β |
| Effects of marijuana use on impulsivity and hostility in daily life. | Ansell EB et al. | β | 2015 | β |
| Effects of minimum legal drinking age on alcohol and marijuana use: evidence from toxicological testing data for fatally injured drivers aged 16 to 25 years. | Keyes KM et al. | β | 2015 | β |
| Frequency and Risk of Marijuana Use among Substance-Using Health Care Patients in Colorado with and without Access to State Legalized Medical Marijuana. | Richmond MK et al. | β | 2015 | β |
| Gateway to curiosity: Medical marijuana ads and intention and use during middle school. | D'Amico EJ et al. | β | 2015 | β |
| Introduction to the special issue: Substance use and the adolescent brain: Developmental impacts, interventions, and longitudinal outcomes. | Luciana M et al. | β | 2015 | β |
| Maternal age and trajectories of cannabis use. | De Genna NM et al. | β | 2015 | β |
| Medical marijuana laws and adolescent marijuana use in the USA from 1991 to 2014: results from annual, repeated cross-sectional surveys. | Hasin DS et al. | β | 2015 | β |
| Naltrexone Maintenance Decreases Cannabis Self-Administration and Subjective Effects in Daily Cannabis Smokers. | Haney M et al. | β | 2015 | β |
| Perceived risk of regular cannabis use in the United States from 2002 to 2012: differences by sex, age, and race/ethnicity. | Pacek LR et al. | β | 2015 | β |
| Pharmacy Students' Knowledge and Attitudes Regarding Medical Marijuana. | Moeller KE et al. | β | 2015 | β |
| Prevalence and patterns of marijuana use among pregnant and nonpregnant women of reproductive age. | Ko JY et al. | β | 2015 | β |
| Prevalence of Marijuana Use Disorders in the United States Between 2001-2002 and 2012-2013. | Hasin DS et al. | β | 2015 | β |
| The association between cannabis use and mood disorders: A longitudinal study. | Feingold D et al. | β | 2015 | β |
| The impacts of marijuana dispensary density and neighborhood ecology on marijuana abuse and dependence. | Mair C et al. | β | 2015 | β |
| The moderating effects of cannabis use and decision making on the relationship between conduct disorder and risky sexual behavior. | Ross JM et al. | β | 2015 | β |
| The National Epidemiologic Survey on Alcohol and Related Conditions (NESARC) Waves 1 and 2: review and summary of findings. | Hasin DS et al. | β | 2015 | β |
| Trajectories of marijuana use from adolescence to adulthood predicting unemployment in the mid 30s. | Lee JY et al. | β | 2015 | β |
| An examination of opinions toward marijuana policies among high school seniors in the United States. | Palamar JJ | β | 2014 | β |
| Association of unintentional pediatric exposures with decriminalization of marijuana in the United States. | Wang GS et al. | β | 2014 | β |
| Availability of tobacco products associated with use of marijuana cigars (blunts). | Lipperman-Kreda S et al. | β | 2014 | β |
| Cannabis. | Ladouceur R | β | 2014 | β |
| Cannabis, pesticides and conflicting laws: the dilemma for legalized States and implications for public health. | Stone D | β | 2014 | β |
| Cannabis use disorders are comparatively prevalent among nonwhite racial/ethnic groups and adolescents: a national study. | Wu LT et al. | β | 2014 | β |
| Changes in driver cannabinoid prevalence in 12 U.S. states after implementing medical marijuana laws. | Masten SV et al. | β | 2014 | β |
| Correlates of intentions to use cannabis among US high school seniors in the case of cannabis legalization. | Palamar JJ et al. | β | 2014 | β |
| Examining the relationship between the physical availability of medical marijuana and marijuana use across fifty California cities. | Freisthler B et al. | β | 2014 | β |
| Implications of marijuana legalization for adolescent substance use. | Hopfer C | β | 2014 | β |
| It's not your mother's marijuana: effects on maternal-fetal health and the developing child. | Warner TD et al. | β | 2014 | β |
| Marijuana liberalization policies: why we canβt learn much from policy still in motion. | Pacula RL et al. | β | 2014 | β |
| Medical cannabis laws and opioid analgesic overdose mortality in the United States, 1999-2010. | Bachhuber MA et al. | β | 2014 | β |
| Patterns of medical marijuana use among individuals sampled from medical marijuana dispensaries in los angeles. | Grella CE et al. | β | 2014 | β |
| Predictors of disapproval toward "hard drug" use among high school seniors in the US. | Palamar JJ | β | 2014 | β |
| Self-reported cannabis use characteristics, patterns and helpfulness among medical cannabis users. | Bonn-Miller MO et al. | β | 2014 | β |
| Temporal trends in marijuana attitudes, availability and use in Colorado compared to non-medical marijuana states: 2003-11. | Schuermeyer J et al. | β | 2014 | β |
| The effects of ethnic, social and cultural factors on axis I comorbidity of bipolar disorder: results from the clinical setting in Korea. | Baek JH et al. | β | 2014 | β |
| The effects of medical marijuana laws on illegal marijuana use. | Chu YW | β | 2014 | β |
| The effects of medical marijuana laws on potency. | Sevigny EL et al. | β | 2014 | β |
| Waiting for the opportune moment: the tobacco industry and marijuana legalization. | Barry RA et al. | β | 2014 | β |
| Drugged driving: increased traffic risks involving licit and illicit substances. | Pilkinton MW et al. | β | 2013 | β |
| DSM-5 criteria for substance use disorders: recommendations and rationale. | Hasin DS et al. | β | 2013 | β |
| Illicit and nonmedical drug use among Asian Americans, Native Hawaiians/Pacific Islanders, and mixed-race individuals. | Wu LT et al. | β | 2013 | β |
| Legalization of medical marijuana and marijuana use among youths. | Friese B et al. | β | 2013 | β |
| Revisiting the role of the urban environment in substance use: the case of analgesic overdose fatalities. | CerdΓ‘ M et al. | β | 2013 | β |
| Trends in detection rates of risky marijuana use in Colorado health care settings. | Richmond MK et al. | β | 2013 | β |
| Medical marijuana use among adolescents in substance abuse treatment. | Salomonsen-Sautel S et al. | β | 2012 | β |
| Medicinal and recreational marijuana use among HIV-infected women in the Women's Interagency HIV Study (WIHS) cohort, 1994-2010. | DΚΌsouza G et al. | β | 2012 | β |
| Physicians and medical marijuana. | Kleber HD et al. | β | 2012 | β |