Human aggression across the lifespan: genetic propensities and environmental moderators.
paper
Cited
Public
- Authors
- Tuvblad, Catherine; Baker, Laura A
- Year
- 2011
- Journal
- Advances in genetics
- PMID
- 22078481
- DOI
- 10.1016/B978-0-12-380858-5.00007-1
- PMCID
- PMC3696520
This chapter reviews the recent evidence of genetic and environmental influences on human aggression. Findings from a large selection of the twin and adoption studies that have investigated the genetic and environmental architecture of aggressive behavior are summarized. These studies together show that about half (50%) of the variance in aggressive behavior is explained by genetic influences in both males and females, with the remaining 50% of the variance being explained by environmental factors not shared by family members. Form of aggression (reactive, proactive, direct/physical, indirect/relational), method of assessment (laboratory observation, self-report, ratings by parents and teachers), and age of the subjects-all seem to be significant moderators of the magnitude of genetic and environmental influences on aggressive behavior. Neither study design (twin vs. sibling adoption design) nor sex (male vs. female) seems to impact the magnitude of the genetic and environmental influences on aggression. There is also some evidence of gene-environment interaction (G Γ E) from both twin/adoption studies and molecular genetic studies. Various measures of family adversity and social disadvantage have been found to moderate genetic influences on aggressive behavior. Findings from these G Γ E studies suggest that not all individuals will be affected to the same degree by experiences and exposures, and that genetic predispositions may have different effects depending on the environment.
Twin correlations across age groups (all studies).
Twin correlations across method of assessment (all studies).
| # | Section | Preview |
|---|---|---|
| 20 | I. Heritability of Aggression: Twin and Adoption Studies β B. Does heritability change across age? | (βΌ younger than 19 years of age) do not in most cases report finding any shared environmentalβ¦ |
| 21 | I. Heritability of Aggression: Twin and Adoption Studies β B. Does heritability change across age? | years to 13.9% at ages 6β10 years and 2.7% at ages 11β18 years (Burt, 2009). This pattern ofβ¦ |
| 22 | I. Heritability of Aggression: Twin and Adoption Studies β B. Does heritability change across age? | It should also be kept in mind, however, that methods of assessing aggression vary across age, suchβ¦ |
| 23 | I. Heritability of Aggression: Twin and Adoption Studies β C. Do heritabilities vary across methods of assessment? | It is important to examine the magnitude of twin correlations across methods of assessment, asβ¦ |
| 24 | I. Heritability of Aggression: Twin and Adoption Studies β C. Do heritabilities vary across methods of assessment? | [h2: 2(rMZβrDZ)=2(0.27β0.11)], dominant genetic effect accounts for approximately 10% [d2:β¦ |
| 25 | I. Heritability of Aggression: Twin and Adoption Studies β C. Do heritabilities vary across methods of assessment? | approach and that formal modeling is required to determine how well these estimates describe theβ¦ |
| 26 | I. Heritability of Aggression: Twin and Adoption Studies β C. Do heritabilities vary across methods of assessment? | A few specific twin studies in Table 8.2, which utilize multiple raters in their design, alsoβ¦ |
| 27 | I. Heritability of Aggression: Twin and Adoption Studies β C. Do heritabilities vary across methods of assessment? | but both genes and shared environment were important for teacher and parent ratings (Baker et al.,β¦ |
| 28 | I. Heritability of Aggression: Twin and Adoption Studies β C. Do heritabilities vary across methods of assessment? | influence across methods of assessment could be the result of different raters reporting differentβ¦ |
| 29 | I. Heritability of Aggression: Twin and Adoption Studies β D. Do heritabilities vary across forms of aggression? | Different types of aggressive behavior have been investigated across twin and adoption studies, withβ¦ |
| 30 | I. Heritability of Aggression: Twin and Adoption Studies β D. Do heritabilities vary across forms of aggression? | Reactive aggression refers to angry or frustrated responses to a real or perceived threat. Thisβ¦ |
| 31 | I. Heritability of Aggression: Twin and Adoption Studies β D. Do heritabilities vary across forms of aggression? | Relational forms of aggression, which involve social manipulation such as gossip and peer exclusion,β¦ |
| 32 | I. Heritability of Aggression: Twin and Adoption Studies β D. Do heritabilities vary across forms of aggression? | Other studies based on multifactorial measures of aggression, such as the BDHI, suggest someβ¦ |
| 33 | I. Heritability of Aggression: Twin and Adoption Studies β D. Do heritabilities vary across forms of aggression? | rG = 0.17 between verbal hostility and assault (Coccaro et al., 1997), rG = 0.35 between indirectβ¦ |
| 34 | I. Heritability of Aggression: Twin and Adoption Studies β E. Does heritability vary depending on study design (twins vs. adopted siblings)? | There were only a handful of studies identified examining the heritability of aggressive behaviorβ¦ |
| 35 | I. Heritability of Aggression: Twin and Adoption Studies β F. Criticisms of twin and adoption studies: Assumptions and generalizability | There are several assumptions in both twin and adoption studies that are important to consider whenβ¦ |
| 36 | I. Heritability of Aggression: Twin and Adoption Studies β F. Criticisms of twin and adoption studies: Assumptions and generalizability | often the case that adoptive parents tend to be in good health and from higher socioeconomic levels;β¦ |
| 37 | I. Heritability of Aggression: Twin and Adoption Studies β F. Criticisms of twin and adoption studies: Assumptions and generalizability | the adopted children's biological grandparents were similar, with regard to educational andβ¦ |
| 38 | I. Heritability of Aggression: Twin and Adoption Studies β F. Criticisms of twin and adoption studies: Assumptions and generalizability | To what extent are the twin study results generalizable to the wider population? Twins andβ¦ |
| 39 | I. Heritability of Aggression: Twin and Adoption Studies β F. Criticisms of twin and adoption studies: Assumptions and generalizability | There are, however, two ways in which twins differ from singletons: (i) lower birth weight, due toβ¦ |
| Name | Type |
|---|---|
| 5-HTTLPR | variant |
| 5HTTLPR low activity VNTR allele local | variant |
| academic performance | phenotype |
| ADHD | phenotype |
| adolescent antisocial behavior | phenotype |
| adolescent drinking | phenotype |
| adolescents | cohort |
| adolescent sample | cohort |
| adopted children | cohort |
| Adoptees | cohort |
| adoption samples local | cohort |
| adoption studies | cohort |
| adoptive parents | cohort |
| Adoptive siblings local | cohort |
| adulthood | cohort |
| adults | cohort |
| adult sample | cohort |
| adverse childhood experiences | phenotype |
| Adverse rearing environment local | phenotype |
| African American | cohort |
| age of first police contact local | phenotype |
| aggression | phenotype |
| Aggressive affect local | phenotype |
| Aggressive cognition local | phenotype |
| Aggressive impulsivity local | phenotype |
| Aggressive parents local | phenotype |
| Aggressive reactions to provocation local | phenotype |
| Aggressive symptoms of conduct disorder local | phenotype |
| alcohol | phenotype |
| alcohol abuse | phenotype |
| Alcohol Use | phenotype |
| Antisocial outcomes local | phenotype |
| antisocial personality disorder | phenotype |
| anxiety | phenotype |
| argumentativeness local | phenotype |
| Argumentativeness local | phenotype |
| arson | phenotype |
| attempted rape | phenotype |
| BDHI local | phenotype |
| behavior | phenotype |
| Behavioral and emotional problems local | phenotype |
| Benign environments local | phenotype |
| better-off neighborhoods local | cohort |
| Biological parents | cohort |
| Biological siblings local | cohort |
| birth parents | cohort |
| birth weight | phenotype |
| bullying | phenotype |
| child aggression local | phenotype |
| childhood | cohort |
| Childhood samples local | cohort |
| children | cohort |
| Cloninger et al., 1982 local | cohort |
| Cloninger et al. 1985 local | cohort |
| cognitive ability | phenotype |
| COMT | gene |
| conduct disorder | phenotype |
| controls | cohort |
| crime | phenotype |
| Criminal offending local | phenotype |
| cruelty toward others local | phenotype |
| Cruelty toward others local | phenotype |
| Deater-Deckard and Plomin 1999 study local | cohort |
| Defensive reactions local | phenotype |
| defiance | phenotype |
| delinquency | phenotype |
| development | phenotype |
| direct physical aggression local | phenotype |
| Direct physical aggression local | phenotype |
| Disadvantaged environments local | phenotype |
| disinhibition | phenotype |
| Disinhibitory spectrum local | phenotype |
| dopamine | drug |
| DRD2 | gene |
| DRD3 | gene |
| DRD4 | gene |
| drug | drug |
| drug dependence | phenotype |
| Dunedin sample local | cohort |
| Dutch family local | cohort |
| DZ male-female twins local | cohort |
| Early adverse environment local | phenotype |
| eating behavior | phenotype |
| empathy | phenotype |
| environment | drug |
| environmental factors | drug |
| Environmental Risk Longitudinal Twin Study local | cohort |
| environmental vulnerability local | phenotype |
| Epinephrine local | drug |
| E-risk study local | cohort |
| European ancestry | cohort |
| exhibitionism | phenotype |
| exposure to media violence local | drug |
| externalizing behavior | phenotype |
| externalizing disorders | phenotype |
| families of boys local | cohort |
| families of girls local | cohort |
| Families of girls local | cohort |
| family dysfunction | phenotype |
| Family warmth local | phenotype |
| gene effect (mean levels) local | phenotype |
| generalized anxiety disorder | phenotype |
| gene relative variance (heritability) local | phenotype |
| genes | gene |
| genetic liability for conduct disorder local | phenotype |
| genetic risk | cohort |
| genetic risk factors local | drug |
| Gestation length local | phenotype |
| harsh discipline | phenotype |
| heritability | phenotype |
| high-activity MAOA genotype local | variant |
| High socioeconomic status local | phenotype |
| high socioeconomic status (SES) local | phenotype |
| identical twins (MZ) females local | cohort |
| identical twins (MZ) males local | cohort |
| impulsivity | phenotype |
| indirect hostility local | phenotype |
| Indirect hostility local | phenotype |
| indirect relational aggression local | phenotype |
| Indirect relational aggression local | phenotype |
| intellectual disability | phenotype |
| Language development local | phenotype |
| Large population-based twin studies local | cohort |
| leadership local | phenotype |
| less advantaged neighborhoods local | cohort |
| Lewis et al. 2001 local | cohort |
| low-activity MAOA genotype local | variant |
| low socioeconomic status (SES) local | phenotype |
| major depressive disorder | phenotype |
| maltreated boys local | cohort |
| MAOA | gene |
| MAOA high-activity allele local | variant |
| MAOA low-activity allele | variant |
| MAOA mutation local | variant |
| maternal control local | phenotype |
| maternal negativity | phenotype |
| Maternal rejection local | phenotype |
| Media violence local | drug |
| MF local | phenotype |
| Minnesota Study of Twins and Families local | cohort |
| molecular genetic studies local | cohort |
| mood disorders | phenotype |
| Mother's control local | phenotype |
| Mother's monitoring local | phenotype |
| Mother's negativity local | phenotype |
| Mother's positivity local | phenotype |
| National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health (Ad-Health) local | cohort |
| negative affect | phenotype |
| negative parenting | phenotype |
| Nonadopted children local | cohort |
| Nonadoptees local | cohort |
| nonidentical twins (DZ) females local | cohort |
| nonidentical twins (DZ) males local | cohort |
| norepinephrine | drug |
| Northern America local | cohort |
| novelty seeking | phenotype |
| opposite-sex twins local | cohort |
| oppositional defiant disorder | phenotype |
| Overt physical aggression local | phenotype |
| parental criticism | phenotype |
| parental divorce/separation | phenotype |
| parents of twins local | cohort |
| personality traits | phenotype |
| phobic anxiety | phenotype |
| physical abuse | phenotype |
| physical activity | phenotype |
| physical health | phenotype |
| physical maltreatment local | drug |
| Planned proactive aggression local | phenotype |
| PNMT local | gene |
| Poor parenting local | phenotype |
| poverty | phenotype |
| pregnancy complications | phenotype |
| Preschool children local | cohort |
| prosocial behavior | phenotype |
| psychiatric disorders | phenotype |
| psychological function | phenotype |
| psychopathology | phenotype |
| psychopathy | phenotype |
| relationships | phenotype |
| religiosity | phenotype |
| RFAB study local | cohort |
| Rhee and Waldman 2002 local | cohort |
| Rutter 2006 local | cohort |
| serotonin | drug |
| sex | phenotype |
| Sexual jealousy local | phenotype |
| shared environment local | cohort |
| shared environmental influence | phenotype |
| sibling adoption design local | cohort |
| Sibling adoption studies local | cohort |
| singletons | cohort |
| SLC6A3 | gene |
| SNPs of epinephrine local | variant |
| SNPs of norepinephrine local | variant |
| SNPs of PNMT local | variant |
| social disadvantage | phenotype |
| socioeconomically advantaged environment local | cohort |
| socioeconomically disadvantaged environment local | cohort |
| socioeconomic status | phenotype |
| substance abuse | phenotype |
| substance use | phenotype |
| Swedish 16β17-year-old twins local | cohort |
| Swedish male adoptees cohort local | cohort |
| Threats to resources local | phenotype |
| Twin cohort | cohort |
| twin cohort (age 7-12) local | cohort |
| twin cohort (age 9-10, boys) local | cohort |
| twins aged 7β12 years local | cohort |
| Twins raised apart local | cohort |
| Twins raised together local | cohort |
| University of Southern California Twin Study of Risk Factors for Antisocial Behavior local | cohort |
| van den Oord et al. (1994) local | cohort |
| van der Valk 1998 study local | cohort |
| van der Valk et al. (1998) local | cohort |
| Verbal aggression local | phenotype |
| verbal hostility local | phenotype |
| Verbal hostility local | phenotype |
| violence | phenotype |
| violent behavior | phenotype |
| violent video games local | drug |
| Violent video games local | drug |
| vulnerability to environmental stress local | phenotype |
| young adults | cohort |
No uploaded files.
Not in any collection.
In this knowledge base
| Title | Year | PMID |
|---|---|---|
| Genetic association study of childhood aggression across raters, instruments, and age. | 2021 | 34330890 |
External
| Title | Authors | Journal | Year | Link |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| A genetically informed longitudinal study of early-life temperament and childhood aggression. | Penichet EN et al. | β | 2025 | β |
| A systematic review of the etiology and neurobiology of intermittent explosive disorder. | Paliakkara J et al. | β | 2025 | β |
| Beyond the Extra X and Y Chromosome: The Contribution of Familial Risk for Psychopathology to the Neurodevelopmental Phenotype of Children With Sex Chromosome Trisomy. | van Rijn S et al. | β | 2025 | β |
| Changes in Rates of Suicide by Mass Shooters, 1980-2019. | Girgis RR et al. | β | 2025 | β |
| Deciphering the mediating role of childhood maltreatment in the association between genetic risk and developmental trajectories of school-age reactive and proactive aggression. | Ouellet-Morin I et al. | β | 2025 | β |
| Exploring Mitochondrial DNA Copy Number in Italian Children with ADHD: Implications for Neurobiological Mechanisms. | Citrigno L et al. | β | 2025 | β |
| Genetic risk for trait aggression and alcohol use predict unique facets of alcohol-related aggression. | Spychala KM et al. | β | 2025 | β |
| Is Aggression Normal in Humans? | Pop-Jordanova N | β | 2025 | β |
| Positive Selection in Aggression-Linked Genes and Their Protein Interaction Networks. | Awadi A et al. | β | 2025 | β |
| Self-regulation of socioemotional behavior in twin adolescents: Structural validation of a multidimensional inventory. | Pulkkinen L et al. | β | 2025 | β |
| Effects of polygenes, parent-child relationship and frustration on junior high school students' aggressive behaviors. | Zhang M et al. | β | 2024 | β |
| Exploring the relationship between depression and delinquency: a sibling comparison design using the NLSY. | Sims EE et al. | β | 2024 | β |
| Genetics of child aggression, a systematic review. | Koyama E et al. | β | 2024 | β |
| Independent Contributions of Callous-Unemotional Behaviors and Quantitative Autistic Traits to Aggression in Early Childhood. | Lineback K et al. | β | 2024 | β |
| Longitudinal reciprocal relationship between media violence exposure and aggression among junior high school students in China: a cross-lagged analysis. | Dou Y et al. | β | 2024 | β |
| Elucidating the role of negative parenting in the genetic <i>v.</i> environmental influences on adult psychopathic traits. | Dotterer HL et al. | β | 2023 | β |
| Genetics and epigenetics of human aggression. | Odintsova VV et al. | β | 2023 | β |
| Neurobiology of Aggression-Review of Recent Findings and Relationship with Alcohol and Trauma. | Fritz M et al. | β | 2023 | β |
| On power and its corrupting effects: the effects of power on human behavior and the limits of accountability systems. | Tobore TO | β | 2023 | β |
| Understanding the Role of Oxidative Stress, Neuroinflammation and Abnormal Myelination in Excessive Aggression Associated with Depression: Recent Input from Mechanistic Studies. | Gorlova A et al. | β | 2023 | β |
| Epigenetics of Aggression. | Duclot F et al. | β | 2022 | β |
| Gene-environment interactions between CREB1 and childhood maltreatment on aggression among male Chinese adolescents. | Zhang Y et al. | β | 2022 | β |
| Intergenerational Transmission of Peer Aggression. | Wiertsema M et al. | β | 2022 | β |
| Continuity of Genetic Risk for Aggressive Behavior Across the Life-Course. | van der Laan CM et al. | β | 2021 | β |
| Gene expression profiles underlying aggressive behavior in the prefrontal cortex of cattle. | Eusebi PG et al. | β | 2021 | β |
| Genetic association study of childhood aggression across raters, instruments, and age. | Ip HF et al. | β | 2021 | β |
| The neurobiology of human aggressive behavior: Neuroimaging, genetic, and neurochemical aspects. | Cupaioli FA et al. | β | 2021 | β |
| Treatment of Aggression in Adults with Autism Spectrum Disorder: A Review. | Im DS | β | 2021 | β |
| Are Owls and Larks Different When it Comes to Aggression? Genetics, Neurobiology, and Behavior. | Deibel SH et al. | β | 2020 | β |
| Catechol-<i>O</i>-Methyltransferase Gene Val158Met Polymorphism Moderates the Effect of Social Exclusion and Inclusion on Aggression in Men: Findings From a Mixed Experimental Design. | Wang M et al. | β | 2020 | β |
| Content, diagnostic, correlational, and genetic similarities between common measures of childhood aggressive behaviors and related psychiatric traits. | Hendriks AM et al. | β | 2020 | β |
| Contribution of genes and environment to the longitudinal association between childhood impulsive-aggression and suicidality in adolescence. | Orri M et al. | β | 2020 | β |
| Ecotype differences in aggression, neural activity and behaviorally relevant gene expression in cichlid fish. | Baran NM et al. | β | 2020 | β |
| Gene expression profiles underlying aggressive behavior in the prefrontal cortex of cattle | Eusebi PG et al. | β | 2020 | β |
| Nitric oxide synthase genotype interacts with stressful life events to increase aggression in male subjects in a population-representative sample. | O'Leary A et al. | β | 2020 | β |
| Predicting risk of suicidal ideation in youth using a multigene panel for impulsive aggression. | Koyama E et al. | β | 2020 | β |
| The biology of aggressive behavior in bipolar disorder: A systematic review. | Fico G et al. | β | 2020 | β |
| Twin study of laboratory-induced aggression. | DiniΔ BM et al. | β | 2020 | β |
| An integrated analysis of genes and functional pathways for aggression in human and rodent models. | Zhang-James Y et al. | β | 2019 | β |
| Genomics of human aggression: current state of genome-wide studies and an automated systematic review tool. | Odintsova VV et al. | β | 2019 | β |
| Oxytocin Receptor Gene (OXTR) and Deviant Peer Affiliation: A Gene-Environment Interaction in Adolescent Antisocial Behavior. | Fragkaki I et al. | β | 2019 | β |
| Serotonin and aggressive behaviour in children and adolescents: a systematic review. | Runions KC et al. | β | 2019 | β |
| The influence of the OPRM1 (A118G) polymorphism on behavioral and neural correlates of aggression in healthy males. | Weidler C et al. | β | 2019 | β |
| Understanding Chronic Aggression and Its Treatment in Children and Adolescents. | Magalotti SR et al. | β | 2019 | β |
| A Multimethodological Study of Preschoolers' Preferences for Aggressive Television and Video Games. | Jamnik MR et al. | β | 2018 | β |
| DRD4 methylation as a potential biomarker for physical aggression: An epigenome-wide, cross-tissue investigation. | Cecil CAM et al. | β | 2018 | β |
| Gender differences in aggression. | BjΓΆrkqvist K | β | 2018 | β |
| Genetic and Psychosocial Predictors of Aggression: Variable Selection and Model Building With Component-Wise Gradient Boosting. | Suchting R et al. | β | 2018 | β |
| Genetic variants in oxytocin receptor gene (OXTR) and childhood physical abuse collaborate to modify the risk of aggression in chinese adolescents. | Zhang Y et al. | β | 2018 | β |
| Heritability of aggression following social evaluation in middle childhood: An fMRI study. | Achterberg M et al. | β | 2018 | β |
| Like Father, like Child: Early Life Family Adversity and Children's Bullying Behaviors in Elementary School. | de Vries EE et al. | β | 2018 | β |
| Pleiotropic Contribution of <i>MECOM</i> and <i>AVPR1A</i> to Aggression and Subcortical Brain Volumes. | van Donkelaar MMJ et al. | β | 2018 | β |
| Two types of aggression in human evolution. | Wrangham RW | β | 2018 | β |
| Psychopathic personality traits in 5Β year old twins: the importance of genetic and shared environmental influences. | Tuvblad C et al. | β | 2017 | β |
| Siblings and Adolescent Weapon Carrying: Contributions of Genetics, Shared Environment, and Nonshared Environment. | Wallace LN | β | 2017 | β |
| Stressful life events increase aggression and alcohol use in young carriers of the GABRA2 rs279826/rs279858 A-allele. | Kiive E et al. | β | 2017 | β |
| Aggression in non-human vertebrates: Genetic mechanisms and molecular pathways. | Freudenberg F et al. | β | 2016 | β |
| Aggressive behavior in humans: Genes and pathways identified through association studies. | FernΓ ndez-Castillo N et al. | β | 2016 | β |
| Cross-Cultural Validation of the Reactive-Proactive Aggression Questionnaire (RPQ) Using Four Large Samples from the US, Hong Kong, and China. | Tuvblad C et al. | β | 2016 | β |
| Environmental Determinants of Aggression in Adolescents: Role of Urban Neighborhood Greenspace. | Younan D et al. | β | 2016 | β |
| FKBP5 interacts with maltreatment in children with extreme, pervasive, and persistent aggression. | Bryushkova L et al. | β | 2016 | β |
| Genetics of aggressive behavior: An overview. | Veroude K et al. | β | 2016 | β |
| Genome-wide analyses of aggressiveness in attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. | Brevik EJ et al. | β | 2016 | β |
| Psychopathic personality development from ages 9 to 18: Genes and environment. | Tuvblad C et al. | β | 2016 | β |
| The Development of Comorbid Conduct Problems in Children With ADHD: An Example of an Integrative Developmental Psychopathology Perspective. | Danforth JS et al. | β | 2016 | β |
| The neurobiological basis of human aggression: A review on genetic and epigenetic mechanisms. | Waltes R et al. | β | 2016 | β |
| Association of three short tandem repeat (STR) loci with male impulsivity in a Chinese population. | Yang C et al. | β | 2015 | β |
| A Swedish national twin study of criminal behavior and its violent, white-collar and property subtypes. | Kendler KS et al. | β | 2015 | β |
| Reciprocal Longitudinal Associations Between Adolescent Twin Gambling and Delinquency. | Vitaro F et al. | β | 2015 | β |
| Validation of the Impulsive/Premeditated Aggression Scale in Mexican psychiatric patients. | Romans L et al. | β | 2015 | β |
| A longitudinal twin study of physical aggression during early childhood: evidence for a developmentally dynamic genome. | Lacourse E et al. | β | 2014 | β |
| Are infants differentially sensitive to parenting? Early maternal care, DRD4 genotype and externalizing behavior during adolescence. | Nikitopoulos J et al. | β | 2014 | β |
| Interaction between prenatal stress and dopamine D4 receptor genotype in predicting aggression and cortisol levels in young adults. | Buchmann AF et al. | β | 2014 | β |
| The heritability of psychopathic personality in 14- to 15-year-old twins: a multirater, multimeasure approach. | Tuvblad C et al. | β | 2014 | β |
| Genetic and environmental influences on antisocial behavior. | Tuvblad C et al. | β | 2013 | β |
| Psychopathic Personality and Negative Parent-to-Child Affect: A Longitudinal Cross-lag Twin Study. | Tuvblad C et al. | β | 2013 | β |