Defecting or not defecting: how to "read" human behavior during cooperative games by EEG measurements.
- Authors
- De Vico Fallani, Fabrizio; Nicosia, Vincenzo; Sinatra, Roberta; Astolfi, Laura; Cincotti, Febo; Mattia, Donatella; Wilke, Christopher; Doud, Alex; Latora, Vito; He, Bin; Babiloni, Fabio
- Year
- 2010
- Journal
- PloS one
- PMID
- 21152069
- DOI
- 10.1371/journal.pone.0014187
- PMCID
- PMC2995728
Understanding the neural mechanisms responsible for human social interactions is difficult, since the brain activities of two or more individuals have to be examined simultaneously and correlated with the observed social patterns. We introduce the concept of hyper-brain network, a connectivity pattern representing at once the information flow among the cortical regions of a single brain as well as the relations among the areas of two distinct brains. Graph analysis of hyper-brain networks constructed from the EEG scanning of 26 couples of individuals playing the Iterated Prisoner's Dilemma reveals the possibility to predict non-cooperative interactions during the decision-making phase. The hyper-brain networks of two-defector couples have significantly less inter-brain links and overall higher modularity--i.e., the tendency to form two separate subgraphs--than couples playing cooperative or tit-for-tat strategies. The decision to defect can be "read" in advance by evaluating the changes of connectivity pattern in the hyper-brain network.
Timeline of the experiment.At each round, or trial, players are asked to choose either to cooperate (C) or defect (D) through a special keyboard. A trial (k) consists of two distinct time intervals. During the first interval, players have to communicate their strategies on the base of the outcome at the previous trial (k-1). Typically, this interval ranged from 0.5 seconds to 2 seconds. After communicating their choice, a report summarizing the strategy and the score at the trial (k) is displayed for 4 seconds. At the beginning of this second interval, the two subjects make the new decision to be communicated in the next trial (k+1). In particular, we considered the first second (i.e., 1 s of EEG recordings) as period of interest (POI) for the initial decision-making processes.
Inter-brain connectivity for pure strategies in the Alpha band.Two generic players are represented by the realistic head models used to estimate the cortical activity in the same six regions of interest (ROIs). Different colored points indicate the barycenters of these ROIs on the semi-transparent cortex. For the sake of simplicity, we didn't label the ROIs of each subplot, but just two for the CC (7_L, 10_L), TT (7_R, 10_R) and DD (CMA, ACC) subplot. Only links between the two brains are illustrated in each hyper-brain network, i.e. the inter-brain connections. The size and the color of each directed connection represent the PDC values of a representative couples of subjects in the Alpha (8β13 Hz) frequency band.
Pie diagrams of efficiency E, divisibility D and modularity Q in the Theta band.Top panels: from left to right the diagrams represent the percentage of cases - over the 26 couples - in which graph efficiency E is minimal, whilst the divisibility D and modularity Q are maximal. Bottom panels: percentage of cases - over the 26 couples - in which E is maximal and D and Q are minimal. Blue areas represent pure cooperation CC, red areas represent pure defection DD, green areas represent pure tit-for-tat TT. Mixed situations CD, CT, and DT are represented by white areas. The results are reported for the Theta band (4β7 Hz). Similar pie diagrams for the other frequency bands are in Figure S3.
Scatter plot of efficiency E, divisibility D and modularity Q during cooperation (CC), defection (DD) and tit-for-tat (TT).For each couple x, and each strategy Ο, the Z-scores are computed as in formula 5 (Materials and Methods section). Then <ZΟ(x)> is evaluated as an average of ZΟk(x) over all the 26 couples. For each strategy, and each frequency band, we report in panel (a), the average Z-score for the measure of divisibility, <ZΟ(D)>, vs. the average Z-score of the efficiency, <ZΟ(E)>, and in panel (b), the average Z-score of divisibility, <ZΟ(D)>, vs. the average Z-score of the modularity, <ZΟ(Q)>. Red squares represent DD values; blue circles represent CC values and green diamonds TT values. The Greek letter beside each symbol indicates the considered frequency band.
Average values of total strength sin+sout of the ROIs during cooperation (CC), defection (DD) and tit-for-tat (TT) in the Beta band (14β29 Hz).Values of total strength (y-axis) are obtained by considering the ROIs (x-axis) of each single subject within the couple. Thus, they represent the average of 52 subjects, i.e. 26 couples. Each line corresponds to a different task: CC (blue circles), DD (red squares) and TT (green diamonds). Vertical bars denote 0.95 confidence intervals. Single stars indicate the ROI where the DD strategy is significantly different (p<0.001) from the CC and from the TT strategy. A double star marks the ROI where all the three strategies are significantly different (p<0.001).
| Name | Type |
|---|---|
| 26 couples local | cohort |
| 26 couples of subjects local | cohort |
| activated regions local | anatomy |
| alcohol | phenotype |
| alpha | anatomy |
| alpha band | phenotype |
| altruism | phenotype |
| anterior cingulate cortex | anatomy |
| Anterior cingulate cortex ACC local | anatomy |
| B1 local | anatomy |
| B2 local | anatomy |
| behavioural response rate local | phenotype |
| Beta local | anatomy |
| Beta | drug |
| beta band | phenotype |
| brain | anatomy |
| brain activity local | anatomy |
| brain activity | phenotype |
| brain networks | anatomy |
| Brodmann area 10_L local | anatomy |
| Brodmann area 10_R local | anatomy |
| Brodmann area 7_L local | anatomy |
| Brodmann area 7_R local | anatomy |
| CC local | cohort |
| CC local | phenotype |
| CC local | variant |
| CC hyper-brain network local | anatomy |
| CC strategy local | phenotype |
| CD | phenotype |
| CD hyper-brain network local | anatomy |
| cingulate cortex ACC local | anatomy |
| Cingulate motor area | anatomy |
| Cingulate Motor Area CMA local | anatomy |
| cooperative behavior | phenotype |
| Cooperator local | phenotype |
| cortex | anatomy |
| Couple cohort local | cohort |
| Couple cohort (n=26) local | cohort |
| Couples cohort local | cohort |
| CT | phenotype |
| CT hyper-brain network local | anatomy |
| DD local | cohort |
| DD | phenotype |
| DD case local | cohort |
| DD hyper-brain network local | anatomy |
| DD networks local | anatomy |
| DD strategy local | phenotype |
| decision-making processes local | phenotype |
| Defection local | phenotype |
| Defector local | phenotype |
| divisibility local | phenotype |
| Divisibility local | phenotype |
| dorsolateral prefrontal cortex | anatomy |
| drug dependence | phenotype |
| DT local | phenotype |
| DT hyper-brain network local | anatomy |
| EEG signals local | drug |
| EEG signals | phenotype |
| efficiency | phenotype |
| external stimulus local | phenotype |
| frontal cortex | anatomy |
| Gamma local | anatomy |
| Gamma | drug |
| gamma band | phenotype |
| hand movements local | phenotype |
| healthy subjects (age 23-33) local | cohort |
| human brain | anatomy |
| hyper-brain network local | anatomy |
| hyper-brain network local | phenotype |
| Hyper-brain network local | anatomy |
| hyper-brain network efficiency local | phenotype |
| intelligence | phenotype |
| medication | drug |
| mental state local | phenotype |
| mixed strategies local | phenotype |
| modularity local | phenotype |
| Modularity local | phenotype |
| Multivariate Autoregressive Model (MVAR) local | drug |
| nasion | anatomy |
| network separation local | phenotype |
| neural pattern local | phenotype |
| neurological disorders | phenotype |
| non-cooperative behavior local | phenotype |
| Non-cooperative behavior local | phenotype |
| non-linear classifier local | drug |
| Partial Directed Coherence (PDC) local | drug |
| players local | cohort |
| pre-auricular marks local | anatomy |
| prefrontal cortex | anatomy |
| psychiatric disorders | phenotype |
| pure strategies local | phenotype |
| reasoning tasks local | phenotype |
| region of interest | anatomy |
| region of interest (ROI) local | anatomy |
| Region of interest (ROI) local | anatomy |
| ROI | anatomy |
| selfish behavior local | phenotype |
| Selfish behavior local | phenotype |
| social behavior | phenotype |
| Social empathy local | phenotype |
| Spectral Coherence local | drug |
| speed of response local | phenotype |
| Study cohort (26 couples) local | cohort |
| Subject 1 local | cohort |
| Subject 2 local | cohort |
| subjects | cohort |
| superior parietal cortex | anatomy |
| task | phenotype |
| theta band | phenotype |
| Tit-for-Tat local | phenotype |
| Tit-for-tat strategy local | phenotype |
| total strength local | phenotype |
| TT | cohort |
| TT local | phenotype |
| TT genotype | variant |
| TT hyper-brain network local | anatomy |
| TT strategy local | phenotype |
| two subjects local | cohort |
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