Common liability to addiction and "gateway hypothesis": theoretical, empirical and evolutionary perspective.
paper
Cited
Public
- Authors
- Vanyukov, Michael M; Tarter, Ralph E; Kirillova, Galina P; Kirisci, Levent; Reynolds, Maureen D; Kreek, Mary Jeanne; Conway, Kevin P; Maher, Brion S; Iacono, William G; Bierut, Laura; Neale, Michael C; Clark, Duncan B; Ridenour, Ty A
- Year
- 2012
- Journal
- Drug and alcohol dependence
- PMID
- 22261179
- DOI
- 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2011.12.018
- PMCID
- PMC3600369
BACKGROUND: Two competing concepts address the development of involvement with psychoactive substances: the "gateway hypothesis" (GH) and common liability to addiction (CLA). METHOD: The literature on theoretical foundations and empirical findings related to both concepts is reviewed. RESULTS: The data suggest that drug use initiation sequencing, the core GH element, is variable and opportunistic rather than uniform and developmentally deterministic. The association between risks for use of different substances, if any, can be more readily explained by common underpinnings than by specific staging. In contrast, the CLA concept is grounded in genetic theory and supported by data identifying common sources of variation in the risk for specific addictions. This commonality has identifiable neurobiological substrate and plausible evolutionary explanations. CONCLUSIONS: Whereas the "gateway" hypothesis does not specify mechanistic connections between "stages", and does not extend to the risks for addictions, the concept of common liability to addictions incorporates sequencing of drug use initiation as well as extends to related addictions and their severity, provides a parsimonious explanation of substance use and addiction co-occurrence, and establishes a theoretical and empirical foundation to research in etiology, quantitative risk and severity measurement, as well as targeted non-drug-specific prevention and early intervention.
A hypothetical individual developmental trajectory of the CLA phenotype. The outset phenotype (Pi) is formed at conception. Genetic and environmental factors, acting as vectors (v1, v2, . . .) whose salience changes over time, projected on the liability dimension, form a resultant vector (R) determining the phenotype location at each time point. When connected, these phenotypes comprise a trajectory leading to a resultant phenotype (Pr) at the time when a diagnosis can be made.
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| 60 | 3. Common liability to addiction — 3.4. Evolutionary roots of addiction — 3.4.2. Common metric system | An important component of the neurobiological basis of this measurement system is likely the… |
| 61 | 3. Common liability to addiction — 3.4. Evolutionary roots of addiction — 3.4.2. Common metric system | Considering the ubiquity of addictive substances, the question may indeed arise as to why drug… |
| 62 | 3. Common liability to addiction — 3.4. Evolutionary roots of addiction — 3.4.2. Common metric system | abundance, due to its recency, has not occurred to the degree that could prevent overconsumption and… |
| 63 | 3. Common liability to addiction — 3.4. Evolutionary roots of addiction — 3.4.2. Common metric system | Hedonic effects also have a ceiling, perhaps evolved due to resource limitations (Lende and Smith,… |
| 64 | 3. Common liability to addiction — 3.4. Evolutionary roots of addiction — 3.4.2. Common metric system | to disincentivize further consumption of psychoactive substances. It is possible, however, that this… |
| 65 | 3. Common liability to addiction — 3.4. Evolutionary roots of addiction — 3.4.2. Common metric system | Subjective perception of cost (and benefit), of course, also varies individually, and the perception… |
| 66 | 3. Common liability to addiction — 3.4. Evolutionary roots of addiction — 3.4.2. Common metric system | The question remains, why the hedonic ceiling that is achievable with drug use is so high? Whereas… |
| 67 | 3. Common liability to addiction — 3.4. Evolutionary roots of addiction — 3.4.3. The amplitude of affective states (AAS) hypothesis | Moreover, as the hedonic states vary on a continuum from extreme unhappiness (dysphoria) to high… |
| 68 | 3. Common liability to addiction — 3.4. Evolutionary roots of addiction — 3.4.3. The amplitude of affective states (AAS) hypothesis | different views on substance use). Such use informs an individual about his personal physiological… |
| 69 | 3. Common liability to addiction — 3.4. Evolutionary roots of addiction — 3.4.3. The amplitude of affective states (AAS) hypothesis | The following explanatory scheme may be proposed for the need to achieve such an amplitude. There is… |
| 70 | 3. Common liability to addiction — 3.4. Evolutionary roots of addiction — 3.4.3. The amplitude of affective states (AAS) hypothesis | It stands to reason that such an improvement in the environment has generally resulted in an… |
| 71 | 3. Common liability to addiction — 3.4. Evolutionary roots of addiction — 3.4.3. The amplitude of affective states (AAS) hypothesis | is underarousal, resulting, e.g., in high novelty and sensation seeking (including that from… |
| 72 | 3. Common liability to addiction — 3.4. Evolutionary roots of addiction — 3.4.3. The amplitude of affective states (AAS) hypothesis | Stressor underloading, resulting in a lower AAS, may call for the organism's own compensation,… |
| 73 | 3. Common liability to addiction — 3.4. Evolutionary roots of addiction — 3.4.4. Drug abuse and (anti)social behavior | Adjustment to social norms is very important in humans, more than in other species because of… |
| 74 | 3. Common liability to addiction — 3.4. Evolutionary roots of addiction — 3.4.4. Drug abuse and (anti)social behavior | considered a therapeutic, purifying measure for the society, perhaps harking back to the times when… |
| 75 | 3. Common liability to addiction — 3.4. Evolutionary roots of addiction — 3.4.4. Drug abuse and (anti)social behavior | Marginalization, which turns a member of the society into a non-member, an Orwellian unperson, an… |
| 76 | 3. Common liability to addiction — 3.4. Evolutionary roots of addiction — 3.4.4. Drug abuse and (anti)social behavior | As in ancient societies, marginalization in our days, whether real or perceived, leaves few options,… |
| 77 | 3. Common liability to addiction — 3.4. Evolutionary roots of addiction — 3.4.4. Drug abuse and (anti)social behavior | for resource procurement or defense, bearing the stamp of group approval, are viewed as legitimate… |
| 78 | 3. Common liability to addiction — 3.4. Evolutionary roots of addiction — 3.4.4. Drug abuse and (anti)social behavior | Antisocial behavior converges in the same construct with drug dependence from adolescence to… |
| 79 | 3. Common liability to addiction — 3.4. Evolutionary roots of addiction — 3.4.4. Drug abuse and (anti)social behavior | individuals and thus into their higher perceived Darwinian fitness—in deviant social groups… |
| Name | Type |
|---|---|
| 2007 National Survey of Drug Use and Health local | cohort |
| acetylcholine | drug |
| addiction | phenotype |
| addiction in children local | phenotype |
| addiction liability local | phenotype |
| Addiction liability local | phenotype |
| Addiction Liability local | phenotype |
| Addiction liability phenotype local | phenotype |
| Addiction to specific drugs local | phenotype |
| ADH | gene |
| adolescence-limited local | phenotype |
| adolescents | cohort |
| adopted high-risk youth local | cohort |
| Adrenergic | drug |
| adverse childhood experiences | phenotype |
| Affective States (AAS) local | phenotype |
| affiliation with deviant peers | phenotype |
| Affiliation with older and deviant peers local | phenotype |
| Affiliative behaviors local | phenotype |
| age of menarche | phenotype |
| aggression | phenotype |
| alcohol | phenotype |
| alcoholism | phenotype |
| ALDH2 | gene |
| Allergic Diseases local | phenotype |
| altruism | phenotype |
| Altruistic behavior toward gang members local | phenotype |
| amphetamine | drug |
| amygdala | anatomy |
| Ancient Greece local | cohort |
| ANKK1 | gene |
| antisocial disorder local | phenotype |
| Antisociality/Psychopathy local | phenotype |
| antisocial personality disorder | phenotype |
| anxiety | phenotype |
| Attachment | phenotype |
| attention deficit hyperactivity disorder | phenotype |
| Auto-aggression local | phenotype |
| autoimmune diseases | phenotype |
| AVP | drug |
| AVPR1A | gene |
| AVPR1A polymorphism local | variant |
| barbiturates | drug |
| Basal affect/arousal level local | phenotype |
| Baseline local | phenotype |
| Bdnf | gene |
| Behavioral deviation local | phenotype |
| behavioral disorders | phenotype |
| behavioral dysregulation | phenotype |
| behavioral phenotypes | phenotype |
| behavioral traits | phenotype |
| behavior dysregulation local | phenotype |
| Behavior dysregulation local | phenotype |
| behavior regulation local | phenotype |
| Behavior regulation local | phenotype |
| Behavior undercontrol local | phenotype |
| benzodiazepines | drug |
| bipolar disorder | phenotype |
| Bonding local | phenotype |
| boredom | phenotype |
| cannabis dependence | phenotype |
| cannabis use | phenotype |
| cannabis use disorder | phenotype |
| Celibacy local | phenotype |
| c-fos | gene |
| chemical classes local | drug |
| children | cohort |
| CHRNA | gene |
| Chronic Inflammatory Diseases local | phenotype |
| cigarettes | phenotype |
| CLA local | phenotype |
| CLA phenotype local | phenotype |
| cocaine | phenotype |
| coffee | drug |
| Common liability | phenotype |
| complex traits | phenotype |
| compliance | phenotype |
| conduct disorder | phenotype |
| Conformity | phenotype |
| Controlled use of alcohol and drugs local | phenotype |
| cortisol | drug |
| craving | phenotype |
| CREB1 | gene |
| CYP2B6 | gene |
| Darwinian fitness local | phenotype |
| Defensive aggression local | phenotype |
| Degenhardt et al. 2010 study local | cohort |
| delinquency | phenotype |
| dependence | phenotype |
| Dependence symptoms | phenotype |
| depression | phenotype |
| Developed countries local | cohort |
| deviance | phenotype |
| Deviant group local | cohort |
| deviant peers | phenotype |
| diabetes | phenotype |
| disinhibition | phenotype |
| Disinhibition/Externalizing local | phenotype |
| disorder | phenotype |
| DNA methylation | drug |
| dopamine | drug |
| Dopamine D2 receptor | drug |
| dopamine release | drug |
| dopaminergic neurons | anatomy |
| Dopaminergic system | drug |
| DRD1 | gene |
| drinking | phenotype |
| drug | drug |
| drug dependence | phenotype |
| Drug involvement | phenotype |
| drug response | phenotype |
| drugs | drug |
| drug-seeking behavior | phenotype |
| drug sensitization local | phenotype |
| drug use initiation local | phenotype |
| Drug Use Initiation local | phenotype |
| Drug-using parents local | phenotype |
| dysphoria | phenotype |
| Dysregulation local | phenotype |
| Early-acting factor local | gene |
| early childhood evaluations local | cohort |
| early maturation | phenotype |
| early-onset antisociality local | phenotype |
| Early-onset antisociality local | phenotype |
| early-onset overeating local | phenotype |
| Emotion | phenotype |
| Environmental similarity local | phenotype |
| Epigenetic modifications | phenotype |
| euphoria | phenotype |
| Exile local | phenotype |
| externalizing behavior | phenotype |
| Externalizing Behavior Disorder local | phenotype |
| Externalizing deviation local | phenotype |
| Externalizing-Internalizing Classification local | phenotype |
| Faster pubertal maturation local | phenotype |
| faster sexual maturation local | phenotype |
| fat metabolism local | phenotype |
| fear extinction | phenotype |
| Fecundity local | phenotype |
| fertility | phenotype |
| fitness benefit local | phenotype |
| food intake | phenotype |
| forebrain | anatomy |
| Fosb | gene |
| frontal cortex | anatomy |
| GABA | phenotype |
| GABAA receptor | drug |
| GABAB receptor | drug |
| gang members local | cohort |
| Gang organization local | phenotype |
| Gateway condition local | phenotype |
| Gateway Hypothesis local | phenotype |
| gateway sequence local | phenotype |
| Gateway Sequence local | phenotype |
| Genetic mechanisms local | gene |
| Genetic similarity local | phenotype |
| GH | drug |
| ghrelin | drug |
| glutamate | drug |
| glutamate system local | drug |
| GRIA2 | gene |
| GRM5 | gene |
| group_selection local | phenotype |
| Habitual drug use local | phenotype |
| hard drugs | drug |
| hashish | drug |
| heavy drinking | phenotype |
| hedonic ceiling local | phenotype |
| Hedonic ceiling local | phenotype |
| Hedonic effect local | phenotype |
| hedonic effects | phenotype |
| height | phenotype |
| High novelty and sensation seeking local | phenotype |
| hippocampus | anatomy |
| Homophilic deviant peer choice local | phenotype |
| Homosexuality | phenotype |
| human behavior | phenotype |
| Human nervous system local | anatomy |
| humans | cohort |
| hunger | phenotype |
| hyperactivity | phenotype |
| hypothalamus | anatomy |
| illicit behavior local | phenotype |
| illicit drugs | phenotype |
| illicit drug use | phenotype |
| impulsivity | phenotype |
| Incapacitation local | phenotype |
| inclusive_fitness local | phenotype |
| Inclusive fitness local | phenotype |
| In-group cooperation local | phenotype |
| Internalizing Behavior Disorder local | phenotype |
| Internalizing deviation local | phenotype |
| IQ | phenotype |
| Japan 18–29 year old population local | cohort |
| kleptomania local | phenotype |
| lead local | drug |
| LEP | gene |
| leptin | drug |
| liability | phenotype |
| liability phenotype local | phenotype |
| Liability phenotype local | phenotype |
| licit compounds local | drug |
| Licit drug local | drug |
| licit drugs | drug |
| Licit/illicit groupings local | phenotype |
| licit substance local | drug |
| licit substance use local | phenotype |
| life-course-persistent local | phenotype |
| life-course-persistent persons local | phenotype |
| limbic regions | anatomy |
| Low-AAS local | phenotype |
| Low amplitude of sensations local | phenotype |
| MAOA | gene |
| MAOA rare mutation local | variant |
| Marginalization local | phenotype |
| marihuana local | drug |
| marijuana | phenotype |
| Maturing-out of addiction local | phenotype |
| memory and learning local | phenotype |
| men | cohort |
| mesocorticolimbic dopaminergic circuitry local | anatomy |
| mesolimbic dopamine neurons local | anatomy |
| mesolimbic dorsal striatum local | anatomy |
| metabolic pathways local | drug |
| metabotropic glutamate receptor local | drug |
| metenkephalin local | drug |
| Methamphetamines local | drug |
| morphine | drug |
| motivation | phenotype |
| negative fitness signals local | phenotype |
| neurobiological systems local | drug |
| nicotine | drug |
| nicotine dependence | phenotype |
| NMDA receptor | drug |
| Non-alcohol substance use local | phenotype |
| non-associated individuals from the general population local | cohort |
| Nonsensitized state local | phenotype |
| Nonspecific liability local | phenotype |
| Non-use local | phenotype |
| non-US samples local | cohort |
| normal body mass local | phenotype |
| norm of reaction local | phenotype |
| novelty seeking | phenotype |
| Noxious response local | phenotype |
| NRXN1 | gene |
| nucleus accumbens | anatomy |
| obesity | phenotype |
| O'Connor 1998 study local | cohort |
| olfactory tubercle | anatomy |
| opiates | drug |
| opioid dependence | phenotype |
| opioid receptor agonist | drug |
| opioid receptor agonists local | drug |
| Ostracism local | phenotype |
| other drugs | drug |
| OXT | gene |
| oxytocin | drug |
| Oxytocin–vasopressin system local | phenotype |
| parental absence | phenotype |
| parental addiction local | phenotype |
| Parental management deficits local | phenotype |
| parental substance abuse local | drug |
| Parental SUD | phenotype |
| Parental SUD liability local | phenotype |
| Parent-child disconnection local | phenotype |
| pathological gambling | phenotype |
| peer deviance | phenotype |
| Peer pressure | phenotype |
| peripubertal period local | phenotype |
| Personality/behavioral phenotypic variation local | phenotype |
| Personal/social degradation local | phenotype |
| pharmakon local | drug |
| Phenotypic assortative mating local | phenotype |
| Phenotypic correlation between peers local | phenotype |
| phenotypic propensity local | phenotype |
| physical abuse | phenotype |
| physiological dependence | phenotype |
| pleasure | phenotype |
| polysubstance abuse | phenotype |
| population | cohort |
| Positive affect change local | phenotype |
| Precocious physical maturation local | phenotype |
| prefrontal cortex | anatomy |
| Premature autonomy local | phenotype |
| Premorbid behavior local | phenotype |
| Problem/antisocial behavior local | phenotype |
| problem behavior | phenotype |
| promiscuity | phenotype |
| Propensity local | phenotype |
| prosocial facilitator local | phenotype |
| Psychoactive substance local | drug |
| psychoactive substances | drug |
| psychological distress | phenotype |
| psychopathy | phenotype |
| psychopharmacologic effects local | drug |
| Psychopharmaco-logic response local | phenotype |
| pubertal maturation local | phenotype |
| puberty | phenotype |
| quality of mates' relationship local | phenotype |
| Recreational use local | phenotype |
| Reproductive disadvantage local | phenotype |
| reproductive maturation local | phenotype |
| Reproductive period local | phenotype |
| reward | phenotype |
| reward system | anatomy |
| risk-taking behavior | phenotype |
| Risky and Antisocial Behavior local | phenotype |
| risky sexual behavior | phenotype |
| routes of administration local | drug |
| rule-breaking behavior | phenotype |
| rule violations local | phenotype |
| self-regulation | phenotype |
| sensitization | phenotype |
| Sensitized state local | phenotype |
| serotonergic axon local | drug |
| serotonin | drug |
| severity | phenotype |
| sex | phenotype |
| Sex hormone local | drug |
| sexual behavior | phenotype |
| Short-term memory lapse local | phenotype |
| Shunning local | phenotype |
| similar phenotypes local | phenotype |
| smoking | phenotype |
| social behavior | phenotype |
| socialization local | phenotype |
| Societal integration local | phenotype |
| soft drugs local | drug |
| Specific drug addictions local | phenotype |
| Specific drugs local | drug |
| spirituous liquors local | drug |
| stress | phenotype |
| stress response | phenotype |
| Stress-socialization system local | phenotype |
| striatum | anatomy |
| Suboptimal brain maturation local | phenotype |
| substance abuse | phenotype |
| substances | phenotype |
| substance-specific addiction risk local | phenotype |
| substance use | phenotype |
| Subthreshold liability phenotypes local | phenotype |
| SUD | phenotype |
| SUD/addictions local | phenotype |
| sugar | drug |
| suicide | phenotype |
| Suprathreshold phenotypes local | phenotype |
| synaptic plasticity | phenotype |
| tea | drug |
| Testosterone level local | drug |
| tobacco dependence | phenotype |
| tobacco use | phenotype |
| tolerance | phenotype |
| trait | phenotype |
| transmissible liability index | phenotype |
| Twin cohort | cohort |
| Underarousal local | phenotype |
| Vanyukov 2007 study local | cohort |
| vasopressin | drug |
| ventral tegmental area | anatomy |
| ventral tegmental area (VTA) local | anatomy |
| vodka | drug |
| Volitional control degradation local | phenotype |
| Voluntary celibacy local | phenotype |
| women | cohort |
| ΔFosB | gene |
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| Relationship between trying an electronic cigarette and subsequent cigarette experimentation in Scottish adolescents: a cohort study. | Best C et al. | — | 2017 | → |
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| The Application of a Decision-Theoretic Model to Estimate the Public Health Impact of Vaporized Nicotine Product Initiation in the United States. | Levy DT et al. | — | 2017 | → |
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